The western Chalukyas, weakened by their long…

The Papacy Turns to the Franks: The Beginnings of the Papal States (753–754)

By the mid-8th century, relations between the papacy and the Eastern Roman Empire are deeply strained, largely due to the Isaurian emperors' support for iconoclasm, which the popes strongly oppose. At the same time, the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire is preoccupied with external threats, including the Abbasid Caliphate in the south and the Bulgars to the northwest. With its own survival at stake, Constantinople is unable to provide military assistance to Rome, leaving the papacy vulnerable to Lombard expansion.

The Lombard Threat and the Pope’s Appeal to the Franks

In 751, the Lombards under King Aistulf seize Ravenna, extinguishing the Exarchate of Ravenna, the last major Byzantine stronghold in northern Italy. With the fall of the exarchate, the Lombards turn their attention to Rome itself, threatening to overrun what remains of imperial authority in Italy.

After the death of Pope Zachary, the newly elected Pope Stephen II (753) recognizes that Constantinople will not intervene and makes a bold move: he becomes the first pope to cross the Alps, traveling north to seek the aid of Pepin the Short.

The Meeting at Quierzy and the Frankish-Papal Alliance

Stephen arrives at Quierzy, where Pepin’s court is located, and personally pleads for Frankish intervention against the Lombards. At first, the Frankish nobles hesitate, reluctant to engage in Italian affairs. However, after considerable persuasion, they finally consent to a military campaign in Lombardy.

In return, Pepin issues a written promise—sometimes referred to as the Donation of Pepin—pledging to convey certain territories to the papacy once they are reclaimed from the Lombards. No original document has survived, but later 8th-century sources reference this agreement, which lays the groundwork for the formation of the Papal States.

The Shift of Power: From Byzantium to the Franks

This agreement marks a critical turning point in European history:

• The papacy permanently shifts its allegiance from the Eastern Roman Empire to the Carolingian Franks, leading to the eventual separation of Western Christendom from Byzantine influence.
• Pepin’s military commitment to the pope establishes the precedent for the Frankish rulers as protectors of Rome, a role that will be further solidified under Charlemagne.
• The Donation of Pepin leads to the creation of the Papal States, giving the popes direct temporal control over central Italy, a status that will endure for over a thousand years.

With this alliance, Pepin the Short cements his position as the rightful ruler of Francia, while the papacy secures a powerful secular protector, ensuring the survival of Rome against the Lombard threat.

The Final Rebellion of Grifo and His Death at Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne (753)

Even after Pepin the Short's rise to the Frankish throne, Grifo, the younger half-brother of Pepin and Carloman, continues his rebellion against his family’s rule. Having been imprisoned in a monastery by his half-brothers in 741, he had previously escaped and sought alliances with various rivals of the Carolingians, including the Bavarians and the Lombards.

In 753, Grifo makes one final attempt to challenge Pepin’s rule, possibly seeking refuge with the Duke of Gascony or hoping to rally opposition in Italy. However, as he travels through the Alps, he is intercepted by Frankish forces at Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne. In the ensuing battle, Grifo is killed, bringing an end to his long-standing resistance.

With Grifo’s death, Pepin eliminates the last major internal threat to his rule, further consolidating his undisputed control over the Frankish realm. This victory comes at a pivotal moment, as Pepin prepares to launch his Lombard campaign in support of Pope Stephen II, solidifying the alliance between the Franks and the papacy.

The Tang government sends another Tang army against Nanzhao in 754, this time from the north, but it too is defeated, and the Tang will be unable to send another expedition due to the outbreak of the Anshi Rebellion in the following year.

Constantine's convocation, in 754, of a synod of bishops for the purpose of continuing and intensifying the policy of iconoclasm begun by his father, Leo III, further weakens the ties between Constantinople and Rome.

Constantine's position on Iconoclasm is clear: ...He cannot be depicted. For what is depicted in one person, and he who circumscribes that person has plainly circumscribed the divine nature which is incapable of being circumscribed. (Nikephoros, Antiherreticus I, P. 100, 301C; trans. Bryer & Herrin)

Constantine convenes a synod in February 754 at Hieria, which is attended entirely by Iconoclast bishops.

The council approves of Constantine's religious policy and secures the election of a new Iconoclast patriarch, but refuses to follow in all of Constantine's views.

The council confirms the status of Mary as Theotokos, or Mother of God, reinforces the use of the terms "saint" and "holy" as meet, and condemns the desecration, burning, or looting of churches in the quest to quench Iconophiles.

Abu al-'Abbas as-Saffah dies in 754, after only five years as caliph; the main burden of establishing the 'Abbasid caliphate thus falls upon his brother Abu Jafar al-Mansur.

Al-Mansur becomes the second caliph of the Abbasid dynasty and leader of the Asian and eastern Mediterranean Muslim community.

The Abbasid rulers reassert the theocratic concept of the caliphate and continuity with orthodox Islam as the foundation for unity and authority in the empire.

Abbasid leadership also renders Islam and the fruits of power accessible to non-Arabs; Iranians become prominent in the new caliphal government and administration.

Al-Mansur faces opposition, however, from Iran and from the Shiite Muslim sect.

Al-Mansur is largely responsible for cutting the 'Abbasids free from the movement that has brought them to power, and is involved in the murder of several leading personalities in that movement.

A danger to al-Mansur's caliphate comes from a number of revolts by ambitious army commanders.

The most serious of these is the revolt in 754 of al-Mansur's uncle, 'Abd Allah, who thinks he has better claims to the caliphate than his nephew.

The danger is only averted with the help of Abu Muslim.

Although the 'Abbasid's enthronement was largely due to Abu Muslim's military victories and political prowess, they have quickly become leery of a vassal with so much power and popularity.

With the accession of the morbidly suspicious al-Mansur, Abu Muslim's downfall is sealed.

After having Abu Muslim quell an uprising led by a rebellious uncle, al-Mansur strips away the governorship of Khorasan from him.

When Abu Muslim arrives at court, al-Mansur has him treacherously put to death, thus eliminating a potential rival for the throne.

The unavenged death of Abu Muslim, already a legendary hero to the population, inspires many later uprisings and revolts.

An anti-Frankish reaction led by Ermeniard kills Ansemund in 754, but the rebellion dies without success and one Radulf is designated as the new count by the Frankish king.

Not much is known of Waifer of Aquitaine for the first decade after accession to the ducal office, but there is a general standoff in the confrontation with the Frankish Pepin the Short.

Circa 754, we find Waifer attacking Pepin on his siege of Narbonne with an army of Basques.

The region that comes to be called the Papal States becomes a separate polity in 754.

The Reconsecration of Pepin and the Birth of the Papal States (754)

On January 6, 754, fulfilling his part of the Frankish-papal alliance, Pope Stephen II reconsecrates Pepin the Shortas King of the Franks in a lavish ceremony at the Basilica of St. Denis in Paris. This marks the first time a pope personally anoints a Frankish ruler, reinforcing Pepin’s legitimacy and further breaking ties between the Frankish kingdom and the Byzantine Empire.

The Title of Patricius Romanorum

During the ceremony, Stephen bestows upon Pepin the additional title of Patricius Romanorum (Patrician of the Romans). This title, traditionally associated with Byzantine-appointed governors in Italy, now signals Pepin’s role as the protector of Rome and the papacy—a function previously performed by the Eastern Roman Empire, but now assumed by the Franks due to Byzantium’s inability to defend the papal territories from the Lombards.

The Donation of Pepin and Its Lasting Impact

Pepin’s military commitment to reclaiming land from the Lombards, known as the Donation of Pepin, soon strengthens the claim of the popes to the de facto core of the Papal States. This agreement formally transfers former Byzantine territories in central Italy to papal control, laying the groundwork for a territorially independent Papal States that will endure for over a millennium.

However, this also creates an unintended consequence:

• The increased power of the popes as secular rulers invites Frankish and later imperial interference in papal elections, as rulers seek to control the selection of the pope to ensure he aligns with their political interests.
• The papacy’s growing reliance on the Franks deepens the West’s separation from Byzantium, setting the stage for the eventual rupture between the Latin and Greek churches.

Thus, the events of 754 mark a fundamental shift in European politics, strengthening Carolingian rule, securing papal independence, and redefining Frankish-papal relations—a dynamic that will shape medieval Europe for centuries to come.

Boniface’s Final Mission and Martyrdom (752–754)

By 752, Boniface, the Archbishop of Mainz and the leading missionary in the Frankish world, resigns his bishopric to return to active missionary work. Having spent decades Christianizing the Germanic tribes under Frankish protection, he now turns his attention once more to Frisia, a region still resistant to both Frankish rule and Christian conversion.

In 754, while traveling near Dokkum, in present-day Friesland (Netherlands), Boniface and his companions are ambushed by a Frisian mob. Despite his efforts to peacefully convert the local population, he and his entire retinue are slaughtered. According to tradition, Boniface refuses to take up arms in self-defense, meeting his fate as a martyr.

The Apostle of Germany and His Posthumous Fame

Following his death, Boniface is revered as the "Apostle of Germany", recognized for his role in firmly establishing Christianity among the Germanic tribes. His missionary efforts, combined with his reforms of the Frankish Church, ensure that his legacy endures far beyond his lifetime.

His remains are interred at Fulda, the monastery he founded, which becomes a major spiritual and educational center in the Carolingian world. Over time, Boniface’s martyrdom reinforces the idea of Christian sacrifice and missionary zeal, cementing his status as one of the most important figures in the Christianization of medieval Europe.