France had lost its North American territory of New France, where Jesuit missionaries had been active in the seventeenth century among indigenous peoples, following the British victory against the French in Quebec in 1759.

British rule has implications for Jesuits in New France, but their numbers and sites are already in decline.

As early as 1700, the Jesuits had adopted a policy of merely maintaining their existing posts instead of trying to establish new ones beyond Quebec, Montreal, and Ottawa.

Once New France is under British control, the British bar  the immigration of any further Jesuits.

By 1763 there are only twenty-one Jesuits still stationed in what is now the British colony of Quebec.

Mexican-born Jesuits represent seventy-five percent of the six hundred and seventy-eight expelled from Mexico in late June 1767, when Spanish soldiers remove the Jesuits from their sixteen missions and thirty-two stations in Mexico.

No Jesuit, no matter how old or ill, can be excepted from the king's decree.

Many die on the trek along the cactus-studded trail to the Gulf Coast port of Veracruz, where ships await them to transport them to Italian exile.

There are protests in Mexico at the exile of so many Jesuit members of elite families, but the Jesuits themselves obey the order.

Since the Jesuits have owned extensive landed estates in Mexico—which support both their evangelization of indigenous peoples and their education mission to criollo elites—the properties become a source of wealth for the crown.

The crown auctions them off, benefiting the treasury, and their criollo purchasers gain productive well-run properties.

Many criollo families feel outraged at the crown's actions, regarding it as a "despotic act."

One well-known Mexican Jesuit in exile, Francisco Javier Clavijero, will write an important history of Mexico with emphasis on the indigenous peoples.

The famous German scientist Alexander von Humboldt, who will spend a year in Mexico in 1803-04, will praise Clavijero's work on the history of Mexico's indigenous peoples.

The Jesuit colleges had been closed on April 1, 1763, and by a further arrêt of March 9, 1764, the Jesuits are required to renounce their vows under pain of banishment.

At the end of November 1764, the king signs an edict dissolving the Society throughout his dominions, for they are still protected by some provincial parlements, as in Franche-Comté, Alsace, and Artois.

In the draft of the edict, he cancels numerous clauses that imply that the Society is guilty, and writing to Choiseul he concludes: "If I adopt the advice of others for the peace of my realm, you must make the changes I propose, or I will do nothing. I say no more, lest I should say too much."

James Francis Edward Stuart, "the Old Pretender", dies in Rome on January 1, 1766 in his home, the Palazzo Muti, and is buried in the crypt of St. Peter's Basilica in present-day Vatican City.

His burial is marked by the Monument to the Royal Stuarts.

His claimed reign had lasted for sixty-four years, three months and sixteen days, longer than any legitimate British monarch until Queen Elizabeth II's reign surpasses it on May 23, 2016.

Pope Clement XIII had recognized James as King of England, Scotland, and Ireland as "James III and VIII", but following James's death the Pope refuses to recognize the claim to the English throne of his eldest son Charles; instead, from January 14, 1766, he finally accepts the Hanoverian dynasty as the legitimate rulers of Britain and Ireland.

This decision leads to a gradual relaxation and reform of the anti-Catholic "Penal laws" in Britain and Ireland.

In 1792, the Papacy will specifically refer to George III as the "King of Great Britain and Ireland", which will elicit  a protest from James's second son Henry, who at that time will be the Jacobite claimant.

The Suppression of the Jesuits in Spain and in the Spanish colonies, and in its dependency, the Kingdom of Naples,is the last of the expulsions, with Portugal (1759) and France (1764) having already set the pattern.

The Spanish crown had already begun a series of administrative and other changes in their overseas empire, such as reorganizing the viceroyalties, rethinking economic policies, and establishing a military, so that the expulsion of the Jesuits is seen as part of this general trend, known generally as the Bourbon Reforms.

The aim of the reforms is to curb the increasing autonomy and self-confidence of American-born Spaniards, reassert crown control, and increase revenues.

Some historians doubt that the Jesuits were guilty of intrigues against the Spanish crown that were used as the immediate cause for the expulsion.

Contemporaries in Spain attribute the suppression of the Jesuits to the Esquilache Riots, named after the Italian advisor to Bourbon king Carlos III, that erupted after a sumptuary law was enacted.

The law placed restrictions on men's wearing of voluminous capes and limiting the breadth of sombreros the men could wear was seen as an "insult to Castilian pride."

When an angry crowd of those resisters converged on the royal palace, King Carlos had fled to the countryside.

The crowd had shouted "Long Live Spain! Death to Esquilache!"

His Flemish palace guard had fired warning shots over the people's heads.

An account says that a group of Jesuit priests appeared on the scene, soothed the protesters with speeches, and sent them home.

Carlos had decided to rescind the tax hike and hat-trimming edict, and to fire his finance minister.

The monarch and his advisers are alarmed by the uprising, which challenges royal authority, but the Jesuits are accused of inciting the mob and publicly accusing the monarch of religious crimes.

Pedro Rodríguez de Campomanes, attorney for the Council of Castile, the body overseeing central Spain, articulates this view in a report the king reads.

Charles III orders the convening of a special royal commission to draw up a master plan to expel the Jesuits.

The commission first meets in January 1767.

It models its plan on the tactics deployed by France's Philip IV against the Knights Templar in 1307—emphasizing the element of surprise.

Charles's adviser Campomanes had written a treatise on the Templars in 1747, which may have informed the implementation of the Jesuit suppression.

Jansenists and mendicant orders have long opposed the Jesuits and seek to curtail their power.

King Charles's ministers keep their deliberations to themselves, as does the king, who acts upon "urgent, just, and necessary reasons, which I reserve in my royal mind."

The correspondence of Bernardo Tanucci, Charles's anti-clerical minister in Naples, contains the ideas that, from time to time, guide Spanish policy.

Charles conducts his government through the Count of Aranda, a reader of Voltaire, and other liberals.

The commission's meeting on January 29, 1767, had settled the expulsion of the Jesuits.

Secret orders, to be opened at sunrise on April 2, have been sent to all provincial viceroys and district military commanders in Spain.

Each sealed envelope contains two documents.

One is a copy of the original order expelling "all members of the Society of Jesus" from Charles's Spanish domains and confiscating all their goods.

The other instructs local officials to surround the Jesuit colleges and residences on the night of April 2, arrest the Jesuits, and arrange their passage to ships awaiting them at various ports.

King Carlos' closing sentence reads: "If a single Jesuit, even though sick or dying, is still to be found in the area under your command after the embarkation, prepare yourself to face summary execution."

Pope Clement XIII, presented with a similar ultimatum by the Spanish ambassador to the Vatican a few days before the decree would take effect, asks King Charles "by what authority?" and threatens him with eternal damnation.

Pope Clement has no means to enforce his protest and the expulsion takes place as planned.

Peter the Great of Russia moves at this time to eliminate the Ottoman presence on the north shore of the Black Sea.

Russia's main objective in the region subsequently is to win access to warm-water ports on the Black Sea, then to obtain an opening to  the Mediterranean through the Ottoman-controlled Bosporus and Dardanelles straits.

Despite territorial gains at Ottoman expense, however, Russia is unable to achieve these goals, and the Black Sea remains for the time an "Ottoman lake" on which Russian warships are prohibited.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (1768–1779 CE): Artistic Flourishing, Economic Reforms, and Enlightened Governance

The era 1768–1779 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe marks a significant phase of artistic achievement, continued Enlightenment-inspired reforms, and complex social transformations across the region.

Artistic and Intellectual Developments

In Rome, the French Academy becomes a center for artistic innovation, hosting artists who profoundly influence European art. Among them, Jacques-Louis David, arriving in 1775, deeply engages with classical antiquity and Renaissance masters, notably Caravaggio, Raphael, and the Carracci. His meticulous studies and the influence of Enlightenment thinkers like Johann Joachim Winckelmann lay foundations for the Neoclassical movement, transforming artistic norms across Europe.

In Naples, archaeological excavations at sites such as Pompeii and Herculaneum continue under King Ferdinand IV, intensifying interest in classical culture and profoundly impacting artistic and intellectual discourse across the continent.

Economic and Administrative Reforms in Spain

Under Charles III, Spain experiences significant administrative improvements and economic revival. Charles continues the modernization initiatives begun during earlier years, emphasizing urban development, trade liberalization, and agricultural innovation. His policies promote industry and commerce, reduce regional trade barriers, and encourage infrastructural advancements, notably road building and urban renewal.

Challenges and Limitations of Reform

Despite these economic advancements, structural reforms under Charles III remain uneven. The persistence of traditional aristocratic landholding patterns and bureaucratic inertia hinder deeper socio-economic transformation. Moreover, Charles III's anti-clerical policies and the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 continue to generate significant tensions, limiting educational opportunities and intellectual diversity, and reflecting broader European struggles between Enlightenment ideals and conservative religious forces.

Cultural and Political Developments in Malta

Under Grandmaster Emmanuel Pinto de Fonseca and his successors, Malta maintains its strategic Mediterranean importance. Major fortification projects and extensive baroque architectural endeavors enhance Malta’s defenses and cultural prestige. The Sacra Infermeria sustains its reputation as a premier European medical institution. The island's cultural flourishing is characterized by architectural patronage and continued artistic innovation.

Conclusion: Enlightenment and Complexity

The period 1768–1779 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is characterized by vibrant artistic expression, ongoing Enlightenment-driven reforms, and persistent challenges between modernizing aspirations and traditionalist resistance. These dynamics significantly shape the trajectory of the region’s future social, cultural, and political landscapes.

The Fall of Pombal and the Restoration of the Old Order (1777–1792)

With the death of King José I of Portugal in 1777, his daughter Maria I ascended to the throne, marking the end of the era of Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, the Marquis of Pombal. Unlike her father, Maria I deeply resented Pombal’s policies, particularly his autocratic rule, harsh purges of the nobility, and conflicts with the Church.

One of her first acts as queen was to dismiss Pombal from power and banish him to the village of Pombal, effectively erasing his influence on the kingdom.

Undoing Pombal’s Reforms

Maria I initiated a political and social reversal, dismantling much of what Pombal had built:

• Hundreds of political prisoners were freed, many of whom had been jailed during Pombal’s purges.
• The old nobility was restored to its former status, regaining much of the power Pombal had stripped from them.
• Relations with the Holy See were fully reestablished, marking a sharp turn away from Pombal’s anti-Jesuit, secular policies.
• Laws restricting the clergy were revoked, undoing Pombal’s attempts to limit the Church’s influence in Portugal.
• Many of the state-run trading companies that Pombal had established to control the economy were abolished.

The Restoration of the Old Order

Pombal had sought to create a modern, secular, and centralized Portuguese state, free from the overwhelming influence of the nobility and the Church. However, his vision collapsed almost immediately after his removal:

• The nobility regained its privileges, once again asserting dominance over government and court politics.
• The Catholic Church, which had suffered major setbacks under Pombal, regained its former power and influence.
• The Portuguese economy returned to its traditional structure, dominated by mercantilism, landowning elites, and colonial wealth.

The End of Pombal’s Legacy

Despite his immense influence during José I’s reign, Pombal’s reforms failed to create a lasting transformation of Portuguese society. His secular, centralized vision was quickly replaced by a return to traditional governance, highlighting the fragility of his political revolution.

Conclusion – A Reactionary Reversal

Maria I’s reign was characterized by the undoing of Pombal’s rule, marking a return to Portugal’s old social and political structures. While Pombal had temporarily reshaped Portugal, his departure led to the rapid restoration of the ancien régime, proving that his reforms had never been fully accepted by the ruling elite.

The Italian city of Brescia is devastated when the Church of San Nazaro is struck by lightning.

The resulting fire ignites two hundred thousand pounds (ninety thousand kilograms) of gunpowder being stored there, causing a massive explosion which destroys one sixth of the city and kills three thousand people.

The disaster prompts the Roman Catholic Church to abandon their religious objection to using lightning rods to protect their property.