The statesmen Alexander Rumyantsev and Ernst Nolken arrive at Turku (Swedish: Åbo) in order to discuss a peace settlement as soon as hostilities cease and the Russian army enters.

The Tsarina promises to evacuate her army from Finland on the condition that Adolf Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp—that is, the uncle of her own heir apparent—be named as the heir to the throne of Sweden. (The latter had been offered the crown of Finland by the local lantdag).

The Hats acquiesce in her proposal in the hope that Adolf Frederick will be able to obtain better terms from her.

Elizabeth also wants Russian forces to occupy Sweden in order to ensure Adolf Frederick's peaceful election, but this plan arouses the vehement opposition of the Swedish representatives and is abandoned.

Russia's Baltic Fleet destroys a Swedish flotilla near Korpo Island (Finnish: Korppoo) while peace negotiations lumber on.

Lacy—who had distinguished himself in similar operations during the Great Northern War—embarks from Kronstadt in August in order to effect a landing in Sweden proper.

As the Baltic Fleet is approaching Umeå, news comes that the Treaty of Åbo (Finnish: Turku) has been finalized, with Sweden ceding to Russia the towns of Lappeenranta and Hamina and a strip of Finland to the northwest of Saint Petersburg.

The Kymi River is to form part of the border between the two powers.

The treaty marks the further decline of Sweden as a great power in Northern Europe.

Northeast Europe (1744–1755 CE): Diplomatic Stability, Economic Development, and Scientific Progress

Between 1744 and 1755 CE, Northeast Europe experienced relative diplomatic stability, steady economic growth, significant agricultural innovation, and notable cultural advancements. Sweden persisted under parliamentary governance during its Age of Liberty, Denmark–Norway maintained strategic neutrality, Prussia continued to strengthen under Frederick the Great, and significant scientific contributions emerged, exemplified by the innovations of Swedish scientist Eva Ekeblad. External pressures from the rising Russian Empire continued influencing the region, particularly through ongoing strategic territorial adjustments and diplomatic interactions, though internal developments within Russia proper, including events in Saint Petersburg, remain outside the scope of this subregional narrative.

Sweden’s Age of Liberty and Parliamentary Governance

Sweden, under King Frederick I (r. 1720–1751) and subsequently Adolf Frederick (r. 1751–1771), maintained its parliamentary governance known as the Age of Liberty. Internal political rivalry between the influential Hat and Cap parties persisted, shaping both domestic policy and foreign relations. Despite diminished international stature, Sweden experienced steady economic recovery, improved agricultural practices, and notable scientific advances that significantly benefited the population.

Eva Ekeblad’s Agricultural Innovations and Recognition

A pivotal figure of this period was the Swedish aristocrat and scientist Eva Ekeblad (née De la Gardie). In 1746, Ekeblad communicated groundbreaking research to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, detailing practical methods to produce flour and alcohol from potatoes. Although introduced to Sweden as early as 1658, potatoes had previously been cultivated exclusively by the aristocracy. Ekeblad’s innovations transformed the potato into a staple food source throughout Sweden, significantly improving food security, increasing grain supplies by replacing wheat, rye, and barley previously used for alcohol production, and substantially reducing the frequency and severity of famines.

Ekeblad’s additional scientific contributions further benefited society. In 1751, she developed a method for bleaching cotton textiles and yarn using soap, and in 1752, replaced hazardous ingredients in cosmetics with safer potato flour. Her innovative use of potato flowers as hair ornaments helped popularize the plant among the Swedish population. In recognition of her pioneering research, Ekeblad became the first woman elected to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1748. Although never actively participating in meetings and later designated as an honorary rather than a full member due to gender restrictions, her achievements remained widely acknowledged and influential.

External Influence and Territorial Adjustments from Russia

Throughout this era, the external pressure and diplomatic influence of the Russian Empire continued to significantly shape Northeast Europe’s political and territorial landscape. Particularly notable was the continuing impact of previous Russian territorial gains from Sweden, such as the strategically vital southeastern areas of Finland including the fortress city of Viipuri (Vyborg). Although internal developments within Russia proper fall outside the scope of this narrative, Russian diplomatic interactions remained influential in Northeast European political alignments and strategic decisions.

Danish–Norwegian Stability and Economic Consolidation

Under Kings Christian VI (r. 1730–1746) and Frederick V (r. 1746–1766), Denmark–Norway sustained diplomatic neutrality, cautiously navigating regional politics. Internally, significant economic reforms, infrastructural improvements, and maritime commerce facilitated stable economic growth. Urban centers, notably Copenhagen, experienced increased cultural vitality, contributing to Denmark–Norway’s prosperity and stability.

Prussian Strengthening under Frederick the Great

Prussia, led by King Frederick II (Frederick the Great) (r. 1740–1786), intensified internal reforms, bolstering military strength, governmental efficiency, and economic resilience. Enlightened absolutist policies improved education, administration, and economic structures within territories such as the Kaliningrad (Königsberg) region, positioning Prussia as an influential and increasingly powerful Central European state, prudently navigating regional diplomacy.

Economic Expansion and Urban Prosperity

Major Northeast European urban centers—including Stockholm, Copenhagen, Königsberg, and Riga—experienced ongoing economic expansion. Continued peace, stable governance, and flourishing merchant networks facilitated robust maritime commerce and increased regional economic integration, significantly enhancing the prosperity and resilience of these cities.

Territorial Stability and Agricultural Advances in Finland

Despite previous territorial concessions to Russia, Finland remained internally stable under Swedish administration. Agricultural productivity improved notably during this period, bolstered by innovations like those introduced by Ekeblad, significantly enhancing food security and economic stability throughout Finland and offsetting challenges posed by territorial adjustments.

Cultural Flourishing and Scientific Advancements

Educational and cultural institutions in Sweden, Denmark–Norway, and Prussia received renewed investment, supporting cultural enrichment and intellectual advancement. Eva Ekeblad’s scientific breakthroughs epitomized the era’s spirit of intellectual curiosity and pragmatic innovation, significantly impacting regional agriculture, economics, and daily life.

Diplomatic Maneuvering and Regional Stability

Diplomatic activities remained strategically cautious as Northeast European powers adjusted to their post-Great Northern War realities. Sweden sought to stabilize its reduced geopolitical status through careful diplomacy, Denmark–Norway preserved neutrality and stability, and Prussia prudently navigated regional politics, each mindful of Russia’s continuing external influence.

Legacy of the Era

The period from 1744 to 1755 CE was crucial in stabilizing Northeast Europe's diplomatic relationships, promoting regional economic prosperity, and significantly advancing cultural and scientific progress. Agricultural innovations led by Eva Ekeblad exemplified enlightened inquiry's transformative impact on societal well-being, significantly enhancing food security and economic resilience. The careful diplomatic maneuvering and internal strengthening of Sweden, Denmark–Norway, and Prussia, coupled with the continuing external influence of Russia, profoundly shaped the region’s geopolitical trajectory and cultural development.

Northeast Europe (1756–1767 CE): Wartime Struggles, Diplomatic Shifts, and Social Progress

Between 1756 and 1767 CE, Northeast Europe was marked by wartime involvement, particularly influenced by the broader European conflicts of the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763), internal political adjustments, and continued economic and social progress. Sweden pursued renewed, though limited, military ambitions, Denmark–Norway navigated neutrality and economic expansion, Prussia emerged resilient from wartime challenges, and the Baltic territories—including Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania—experienced gradual recovery and stabilization.

Sweden’s Limited Involvement in the Seven Years’ War

Sweden, under King Adolf Frederick (r. 1751–1771), participated briefly in the Seven Years’ War as part of a broader European coalition aimed at weakening Prussian influence. Encouraged by the dominant Hat party, Swedish forces invaded Prussian Pomerania in 1757, hoping to regain lost prestige and territory. However, due to limited military resources and unclear strategic objectives, Sweden achieved little success. In 1762, the conflict concluded without territorial changes for Sweden, highlighting the kingdom’s diminished geopolitical status and prompting further internal reflection on its international ambitions.

Danish–Norwegian Neutrality and Economic Growth

Under King Frederick V (r. 1746–1766) and subsequently Christian VII (from 1766), Denmark–Norway carefully maintained neutrality throughout the Seven Years’ War, strategically capitalizing on the conflict by enhancing trade and economic prosperity. Maritime commerce expanded significantly, particularly benefiting Copenhagen and other Danish-Norwegian ports. Continued investments in infrastructure, education, and agricultural productivity strengthened the kingdom’s internal stability and economic resilience, providing a stable foundation despite broader European instability.

Prussian Resilience and Strengthening under Frederick the Great

Prussia, led by King Frederick II (Frederick the Great) (r. 1740–1786), endured severe challenges during the Seven Years’ War, facing powerful European coalitions intent on reducing Prussian influence. Through skilled military strategy and diplomatic maneuvering, Prussia survived despite initial setbacks, emerging from the conflict battered yet ultimately strengthened. This period reinforced Prussia’s reputation as a resilient and influential state, solidifying its importance to Northeast Europe's geopolitical balance and strengthening economic and military institutions, notably in Königsberg (Kaliningrad).

Economic Resilience and Urban Stability in the Baltic

Cities within the Northeast Europe subregion—including Stockholm, Copenhagen, Königsberg, Riga, and Reval (Tallinn)—displayed notable economic resilience despite wartime disruptions. Enhanced governance, robust merchant networks, and carefully maintained neutrality (in Denmark–Norway’s case) facilitated continued prosperity. Maritime trade thrived, particularly through Danish and Swedish ports, reflecting broader regional economic stability and growth.

Stability and Continued Agricultural Progress in Finland

In Finland, remaining under Swedish administration, internal stability persisted despite Sweden’s limited military engagements. Agricultural productivity further improved, partly due to ongoing adoption of innovations such as those introduced earlier by Eva Ekeblad. These advances continued to bolster food security and economic stability within Finland, effectively mitigating the effects of external geopolitical tensions and limited wartime disruptions.

Social Progress and Cultural Advancement

Throughout Northeast Europe, cultural and educational institutions continued to flourish, benefiting from sustained investments and patronage. Prominent universities and academies in Stockholm, Copenhagen, and Königsberg actively promoted intellectual and scientific progress. Notable advancements occurred in literature, natural sciences, agriculture, and philosophy, reflecting the era's broader Enlightenment ideals.

Political Developments in the Baltic Territories

The Baltic territories of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania continued recovering from earlier wartime disruptions and stabilized economically and socially. Under stable governance structures, predominantly influenced by local Baltic-German nobility and sustained urban commercial activity, these territories experienced steady economic recovery and relative internal tranquility, despite continuing external diplomatic pressures.

Diplomatic Realignments and Regional Stability

Diplomatic interactions remained complex, characterized by careful maneuvering and pragmatic neutrality. Sweden’s unsuccessful military venture against Prussia underscored its reduced geopolitical influence. Denmark–Norway skillfully leveraged its neutrality to maintain stability and economic growth, while Prussia emerged diplomatically strengthened by successfully weathering wartime challenges. External influences, notably from Russia—though primarily beyond this subregion—continued indirectly impacting Northeast Europe's diplomatic strategies and territorial alignments.

Legacy of the Era

The period from 1756 to 1767 CE significantly influenced Northeast Europe’s geopolitical balance, economic resilience, and cultural trajectory. Sweden's limited wartime involvement reaffirmed its reduced regional status, prompting internal reflection and economic pragmatism. Denmark–Norway’s strategic neutrality fostered economic prosperity and stability, and Prussia’s endurance in the Seven Years’ War firmly positioned it as an influential and resilient state within Northeast Europe. Collectively, these developments contributed significantly to shaping diplomatic relationships, economic stability, and cultural advancement across the region, establishing foundational conditions for subsequent historical periods.

The December Crisis is described as the only occasion when the Swedish king himself attempted to assert his power; previous attempts had always been staged by his queen, Louisa Ulrika of Prussia.

In 1767, French envoy Louis Auguste Le Tonnelier de Breteuil had suggested a coup to increase royal power to the Hovpartiet, a political group whose goal is the strengthening of royal power against the parliament of the Riksdag of the Estates.

In December 1768, the king refuses to sign state documents in protest to his limited power and on December 15, the king formally resigns his throne in order to bring about the gathering of a new Riksdag, during which a reform to increase his capacity could be introduced.

This creates a difficult political situation, as he had thereby technically abdicated and the nation is in interregnum.

The Hovpartiet suggests that the crisis could be used to stage a coup to establish absolute monarchy.

The queen, whose Coup of 1756 was a Hovpartiet project, opposes because she does not consider the time right for such a step and advocated negotiation with the Hats (party) and the Caps (party), but at this point, the Hovpartiet for the first time turns to the Crown Prince rather than the queen; however, the crisis cannot be used for a coup because the Caps party breaks an agreement.

On December 20, the government agrees to assemble the Riksdag and promises new reforms, and the king hereby agrees to retake the throne.

Thus the crisis is averted and the government can function again.

The Riksdag will however not be assembled until 1769, and it does not give the royal house more than an increased allowance.

Adolf Frederick, King of Sweden, is little more than a figurehead, the real power being lodged in the hands of the Riksdag of the Estates, often distracted by party strife.

Twice he endeavors to free himself from the tutelage of the estates.

The first occasion had been in 1756 when, stimulated by his imperious consort Louisa Ulrika of Prussia (sister of Frederick the Great), he had tried to regain a portion of the attenuated prerogative through the Coup of 1756, and nearly lost his throne in consequence.

On the second occasion during the December Crisis (1768), under the guidance of his eldest son, the crown prince Gustav, afterwards Gustav III of Sweden, he succeeds in overthrowing the "Cap" senate, but is unable to make any use of his victory.

French envoy to Sweden Louis Auguste Le Tonnelier de Breteuil had in 1767 suggested a coup to increase royal power to the Hovpartiet (English: The Royal Court Party), the name for a political group in Sweden during the age of liberty.

The Hovpartiet, in existence in one form or another since 1723, seeks to strengthen royal power against the parliament of the Riksdag of the Estates.

It is most known in history as the force behind Queen Louisa Ulrika's Coup of 1756.

During the early 1760s, Hovpartiet had allied with the Caps (party).

After the election of 1765, it had  allied with the defeated Hats (party).

At this point, it has only followers among the nobility in the Riksdag of the Estates.

During this time, it is led by Fredrik Carl Sinclair in parliament.

Queen Louisa Ulrika had lost her leading position within the party after 1766 in favor of crown prince Gustav.

In December 1768, the king refuses to sign state documents in protest to his limited power and on  December 15, the king formally resigns his throne in order to bring about the gathering of a new Riksdag, during which a reform to increase his capacity can be introduced.

This creates a difficult political situation, as he has hereby technically abdicated and the nation is in interregnum.

The Hovpartiet suggests that the crisis can be used to stage a coup to establish absolute monarchy.

The queen opposes because she does not consider the time right for such a step and advocated negotiation with the Hats  and the Caps, but at this point, the Hovpartiet for the first time turns to the Crown Prince rather than the queen; however, the crisis cannot be used for a coup because the Caps party breaks an agreement.

On December 20, the government agrees to assemble the Riksdag and promises new reforms, and the king thereby agrees to retake the throne: the crisis is hereby averted and the government can function again.

The Riksdag was however not assembled until 1769, and it did not give the royal house more than an increased allowance.

Adolf Frederick, King of Sweden from 1751, dies on February 12, 1771, after having consumed a meal consisting of lobster, caviar, sauerkraut, kippers and champagne, which was topped off with fourteen servings of his favorite dessert: semla stuffed with almond paste and served in a bowl of hot cream.

His son succeeds him as Gustav III.

At the time, however, Gustav is unaware of this, since he is abroad in Paris.

The news of his father's death will reach him about a month later.

Gustav, the son of Swedish King Adolf Frederick, is in Paris, where he carries both the court and the city by storm, from February 4 to March 25, 1771.

The poets and the philosophers pay him enthusiastic homage, and distinguished women testify to his superlative merits.

With many of them he will maintain a lifelong correspondence.

His visit to the French capital is, however, no mere pleasure trip; it is also a political mission.

Confidential agents from the Swedish court had already prepared the way for him, and the Duke of Choiseul, the retired Chief Minister, resolves to discuss with him the best method of bringing about a revolution in France's ally, Sweden.

Before he departs, the French government undertakes to pay the outstanding subsidies to Sweden unconditionally, at the rate of one and a half million livres annually.

Count de Vergennes, one of the most prominent French diplomats, is transferred from Constantinople to Stockholm.

On his way home, Gustav pays a short visit to his uncle, Frederick the Great, at Potsdam.

Frederick bluntly informs his nephew that, in concert with Russia and Denmark, he has guaranteed the integrity of the existing Swedish constitution; he advises the young monarch to play the part of mediator and abstain from violence.

Gustav had first intervened actively in politics during the December Crisis (1768), when he compelled the dominant Cap faction, which mainly represents the interests of the peasantry and clergy, to summon an extraordinary diet from which he hoped for the reform of the constitution in way that would increase the power of the crown, but the victorious Hat party, which mainly represents the interests of the aristocracy and military establishment, refuses to redeem the pledges that they had given before the previous elections.  

Gustav has found greater success abroad.

Gustav III, on his return to Sweden, tries to mediate between the bitterly divided Hat and Cap parties.

On June 21, 1771, he opens his first Riksdag with a speech that arouses powerful emotions.

It is the first time in more than a century that a Swedish king addresses a Swedish Riksdag in its native tongue.

He stresses the need for all parties to sacrifice their animosities for the common good, and volunteers, as "the first citizen of a free people," to be the mediator between the contending factions.

A composition committee is actually formed, but it proves illusory from the first: the patriotism of neither Hat nor Cap faction is sufficient for the smallest act of self-denial.

The subsequent attempts of the dominant Caps to reduce him to a roi fainéant (a powerless king), encourages him to consider a coup d'état.