Euin, the first Lombard Duke of Tridentum (Trent), had been at the head of the army loyal to Authari that in about 589 went into the territory in Istria of the duke of Friuli, and in 591 he had been sent by Agilulf to make peace with the Franks, his neighbors, .

After Euin's death in January 595, Agilulf installs Gaidoald, who is a Catholic, rather than an Arian Christian.

Dukes Gisulf II of Friuli and Gaidoald of Trent had been at odds with King Agilulf until they made peace in 602 or 603.

Gisulf had also allied with the Avars to make war on Istria.

Gisulf is involved in the local church.

The bishops of "the schismatics of Istria and Venetia," as Paul the Deacon calls them, had fled to the protection of Gisulf.

Gisulf had also taken part in the confirmation of the succession of Candidianus to the patriarchate of Aquileia in 606.

The most significant event of his reign occurs probably in 611.

When the Avars invade Italy, Gisulf's territory is the first they pass through.

Gisulf summons a large army and goes to meet them.

The Avars are a larger force, however, and they soon overwhelm the Lombards.

Gisulf dies in battle, and his duchy is overrun.

He leaves four sons and four daughters by his wife Romilda (or Ramhilde).

His elder two sons, Tasso and Kakko, along with their younger brothers Radoald, and Grimoald, escapes the Avars and evade capture, successfully setting themselves up as Gisulf's successors.

Of two of Gisulf’s daughters, Appa and Geila (or Gaila), Paul the Deacon says that one married the King of the Alemanni (uncertain) and another the Prince of the Bavarians, probably Garibald II of Bavaria, but he does not identify who married whom.

Tasso and his brothers Kakko, Radoals, and Grimoald, while reining over the Lombard Duchy of Friuli, rule over the Slavs of the valley of the Gail River up to Matrei and impose a tribute upon them.

The exarch of Ravenna, having invited Duke Tasso of Friuli to Oderzo for a ceremonial beard-cutting, has him hunted down and killed along with Kakko in 617.

Radoald and Grimoald flee to Arechis I of Benevento and Friuli passes to their uncle Grasulf II.

The Chronicle of Fredegar records a story of how Isaac the Armenian slew Tasso, duke of Tuscany, by deceit for the benefit of the Lombard king Arioald.

However, according to Paul the Deacon, it was the patriarch Gregory who killed Tasso, and Tasso was instead the Duke of Friuli with his brother Kakko.

Arioald, brother-in-law of Agilulf's heir Adaloald, deposes the him with the support of the nobility in 626, for young king has gone mad.

Upon becoming king, he has his wife locked up in a monastery, accusing her of plotting against him with Tasson, duke of Friuli.

He also reestablishes Arianism in the Lombard kingdom.

His only recorded wars are against the Avars, whom he succeeds n repelling during an attempted invasion of northeast Italy.

Arechis I, duke of Benevento, had conquered Capua and Venafro in the Campania and areas of the Basilicata and Calabria.

He had failed to take Naples after a siege (his predecessor Zotto had failed likewise), but he took Salerno by the late 620s.

He has spent the last years of his reign establishing good relations with the Roman Catholics of his duchy and making his son his successor.

He dies after a fifty-year reign and is succeeded by his son Aiulf I, who is, however, mentally unstable; his adoptive brothers Radoald and Grimoald, the younger sons of the late Gisulf II of Friuli, are regents for him.

The Lombards, one of the Germanic tribes that formed the Suebi, had migrated in 568 into Italy, which had been left almost defenseless after the Empire's armies had overthrown the Ostrogothic kingdom there.

By the time of Agilulf (reigned 590-615), the Lombards were well established in the Italian peninsula with a capital in the north at Pavia and strong duchies in Spoleto, Tuscany, and Beneventum.

Pavia, where the royal palace is located, has become the center of administrative organization.

King Rothari had died in 652 after a sixteen-year reign and had been succeeded by his son Rodoald as king of the Lombards.

Rodoald, said to be lecherous, is assassinated after a reign of just six months in 653 by the husband of one of his lovers.

Paul the Deacon writes that Rodoald "had reigned five years and seven days," although historians note that this length of reign is suspect.

Aripert, a rival claimant, is elected with the support of the Catholic Church, which opposes the Arian monarchy.

Aripert is the first Roman Catholic king of the Lombards.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (676–819 CE): Lombard Decline, Islamic Iberia, and Carolingian Consolidation

The age 675–819 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is marked by dramatic geopolitical shifts, including the decline and eventual fall of the Lombard kingdom, the establishment of the Papal States, and the rise and flourishing of Al-Andalus under Islamic rule.

Lombard Decline and Carolingian Conquest

In the late eighth century, Lombard power in Italy wanes significantly, culminating in its complete absorption by Charlemagne and the expanding Frankish Empire. Charlemagne's conquest in 774 CE ends the Lombard Kingdom, integrating northern and central Italy into his empire and solidifying Frankish dominance.

Formation of the Papal States

The Franks, under Pepin the Short and later Charlemagne, play a critical role in establishing and reinforcing the temporal power of the papacy. Pepin’s historic "Donation" in 756 CE grants central Italian territories to the pope, founding the Papal States—a significant political entity governed directly by the papacy, which endures for centuries.

Al-Andalus under Umayyad Rule

Following the Islamic conquest of Visigothic Spain beginning in 711 CE, the Iberian Peninsula, now called Al-Andalus, initially comes under the religious and political authority of the Umayyad caliphs in Damascus. Governors, typically of Syrian origin, bring Byzantine-influenced administrative practices, establishing a sophisticated, urban-based aristocracy that includes many converted Visigothic nobles.

Berber Influence and Societal Transformation

Despite Arab political dominance, North African Berbers constitute the largest population group among the Islamic settlers, making up roughly twenty percent of the occupied territory. Berbers, known for their religious fervor and fundamentalism, significantly shape the religious and social character of Iberian Islam. Many settle widely throughout Spain, profoundly influencing its rural and urban communities.

Cultural Integration and Religious Pluralism

In Al-Andalus, widespread conversion to Islam occurs among both Visigothic elites and peasants, though pockets of Hispano-Roman Christianity persist, notably the Mozarab communities. These Christians, alongside a sizable Jewish minority—over five percent of the population—play significant roles in commerce, scholarship, and professional life, particularly in cities like Córdoba, Seville, and Toledo.

Independent Emirate of Córdoba

In 756 CE, the Umayyad dynasty in Damascus falls to the Abbasids, prompting Umayyad prince Abd al-Rahman I to flee to Spain, establishing an independent emirate in Córdoba. His rule (756–788 CE) marks the beginning of a vibrant political entity that thrives culturally, intellectually, and economically, unmatched in contemporary Europe.

Muslim Colonization and Agricultural Development

In Lusitania, Muslim settlement initially takes root but is hindered by unsuitable agricultural conditions north of the Tagus River, especially along the Rio Douro. Preference emerges for the drier, familiar regions southward, particularly the Algarve, where Muslim agricultural practices and settlements leave lasting imprints. The Muslim aristocracy revitalizes urban life, while rural landscapes see a mix of small Muslim farmers and converted Visigothic peasants.

Technological Advances in Metallurgy

Technological innovations, notably the development of the Catalan forge in Iberia around this time, significantly enhance iron production capabilities, transforming medieval economic and military capacities throughout Europe. This advancement facilitates greater agricultural productivity and improved military strength, underpinning regional prosperity.

Legacy of the Age

The era 676–819 CE reshapes Mediterranean Southwest Europe through profound geopolitical, religious, and cultural transformations. The fall of Lombard Italy and rise of the Papal States alter the region’s political structures, while the flourishing of Al-Andalus establishes a vibrant, multicultural Islamic society. These developments set enduring patterns for medieval European history, influencing cultural and political trajectories for centuries to come.

Pemmo had come to the duchy of Friuli at a time when a recent civil war had ravaged the land.

Pemmo has raised all the children of the many nobles killed in the war in his own household next to his own sons.

He has also waged three wars with the Slavs of Carinthia, defeating them so utterly the third time hat they had entered into a peace treaty.

Pemmo had also quarreled with Callistus, Patriarch of Aquileia, who had been at odds with the bishop of Cividale and had removed him.

Pemmo, in response, had arrested the patriarch.

For this, King Liutprand had descended on Friuli and appointed Ratchis, Pemmo's son, in his place.

Pemmo had fled with his followers, but his son secured his pardon.

Pemmo dies in 739, leaving two other sons by Ratperga: Ratchait and Aistulf, who becomes king.

Lombard law and administration in the mid-eighth century reflects both Roman and Germanic influences.

Many of the Lombards have converted from Arianism to Roman Catholicism during Liutprand's reign.

By the time of King Liutprand’s death in 744, the Lombards have accepted, in addition to orthodox Christianity, many elements of Roman culture, including the Latin language.

Hildeprand, a son or a grandson of Liutprand, begins his reign in his own right in January 744, but is deposed by a great council after a few months for his incompetence.

He is dead by August.

Ratchis, Duke of Friuli, whose father was Duke Pemmo and whose Roman wife is Tassia, becomes king.

His brother Aistulf succeeds him in Friuli.