Northwest Europe (964 – 1107 CE): Norman Conquest, Insular Kingdoms, and North Sea Networks

Geographic and Environmental Context

Northwest Europe includes Iceland, Ireland, the United Kingdom, the Faroe, Shetland, and Orkney Islands, the Channel Islands, and the western coastal zones of Norway and Denmark (west of 10°E).

• Anchors: London–York–Winchester, Dublin–Waterford–Cork, Bergen–Trondheim, Orkney–Shetland–Faroe–Iceland, Channel ports (Southampton, Dover).

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• Warm conditions supported population growth; herring shoals and cod grounds underpinned fisheries from North Sea to Iceland.

Societies and Political Developments

• England: consolidation under Anglo-Saxon kings (Æthelred II, Cnut the Great, 1016–1035, Edward the Confessor).

• Norman Conquest (1066): William seized England; castles, feudal estates, Domesday Book (1086).

• Ireland: Norse towns remained semi-autonomous; Irish high-kings (Brian Boru, d. 1014 at Clontarf).

• Scotland: Kings Malcolm II–III consolidated Lowlands; Norse jarls remained strong in Orkney/Hebrides.

• Norway/Denmark: Cnut’s North Sea Empire (England–Denmark–Norway); later Norway consolidated under Olaf Haraldsson (St. Olaf, d. 1030).

• Iceland: Christianization (c. 1000), Althing maintained self-rule under Norwegian overlordship by late 11th c.

Economy and Trade

• London grew as a major European port.

• Dublin, York thrived on slave trade, silver, and hides.

• North Sea commerce: wool, cloth, salt, fish; Norwegian timber and iron traded south.

• Flemish cloth towns (Ghent, Bruges, just across boundary in Atlantic West Europe) were key markets for English wool.

Belief and Symbolism

• Christianization of Scandinavia; churches founded across Norway, Denmark, and Iceland.

• Monastic expansion in England, Ireland, Scotland; Norman Romanesque architecture flourished.

Long-Term Significance

By 1107, the Norman monarchy dominated England; Scandinavia and Iceland were Christianized; the North Sea was a connected political and economic system.

Lack of arable land in Iceland serves as impetus to the settlement of Greenland starting in 986.

The period of these early settlements coincides with the Medieval Warm Period, when temperatures are similar to those of the early twentieth century.

At this time, about twenty-five percent of Iceland is covered with forest, compared to one percent in the present day.

Christianity is adopted by consensus around 999–1000.

Northeastern North America (964 – 1107 CE): Norse Vinland, Cahokia’s Rise, and Algonquian Networks

Geographic and Environmental Context

Northeastern North America includes: the Atlantic coast from Jacksonville, Florida to St. John’s, Newfoundland; Greenland; the Canadian Arctic; all Canadian provinces east to the Saskatchewan–Alberta border; and within the U.S., the Old South (Virginia, Carolinas, most of Georgia, northeast Alabama, Tennessee except its southwest), the Appalachian Plateau, the Midwest Lowlands, the Driftless Area, the Tallgrass Prairie, the Big Woods, the Drift Prairie, and the Aspen Parkland.

 

• Anchors: the Greenland colonies, Vinland outposts (Newfoundland), St. Lawrence–Great Lakes corridor, Old South mound centers, the Appalachians, the Tallgrass Prairie, and the Canadian Arctic coast.

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• Warm conditions favored maize intensification at Cahokia (St. Louis region) and along the Ohio–Mississippi valleys.

• Navigable seas enabled Norse voyages across Davis Strait to Vinland.

Societies and Political Developments

• Norse Greenland: farms, churches, and walrus-hunting economies stabilized.

• Vinland (Newfoundland): Norse attempted small colonies; conflict with indigenous Skrælings (Beothuk ancestors).

• Mississippian cultures: Cahokia emerged (~1050) as a mound-metropolis with stratified elites.

• Old South/Appalachians: platform mounds and chiefdoms developed.

• Iroquoian and Algonquian villages grew denser in Great Lakes and St. Lawrence regions.

• Prairies: transitional societies blended farming and bison hunting.

• Arctic: Thule Inuit began migrating eastward, displacing Dorset cultures.

Economy and Trade

• Cahokia redistributed maize, copper, shells, and chert.

• Greenland Norse exported walrus ivory to Europe.

• Atlantic and Great Lakes fisheries sustained coastal peoples.

• Prairie societies exchanged hides and crops with Woodland neighbors.

Belief and Symbolism

• Cahokia’s woodhenges and mounds structured ritual calendars.

• Longhouse rituals in Iroquoian areas tied kin and cosmos.

• Norse Greenlanders built early churches (Brattahlid).

Long-Term Significance

By 1107, Northeastern North America was marked by Cahokia’s urban ascendance, Greenland’s Norse colonies, and Vinland’s brief contact, while Algonquian and Iroquoian networks deepened across woodlands and rivers.

Thorfinn Karlsefni’s brothers Helgi and Finnbogi lead additional expeditions to Vinland around 1013, but the hostility of the native Skraelings apparently causes the Scandinavians to abandon all attempts at colonization around 1015.

(Vinland could refer to L’Anse aux Meadows, or to a mainland site perhaps as far south as the Virginia Capes; scholars debate its location, as they do the locations of earlier Viking settlements.)

The colonists return to Greenland; Thorfinn eventually settles in Iceland.

This three year excursion will be the longest-lasting European colony in the New World until Columbus' voyages four hundred years later initiate full-scale colonization.

Northeastern North America (1108 – 1251 CE): Cahokia Zenith, Iroquoian Expansion, and Greenland’s Stability

Geographic and Environmental Context

Northeastern North America includes: the Atlantic coast from Jacksonville, Florida to St. John’s, Newfoundland; Greenland; the Canadian Arctic; all Canadian provinces east to the Saskatchewan–Alberta border; and within the U.S., the Old South (Virginia, Carolinas, most of Georgia, northeast Alabama, Tennessee except its southwest), the Appalachian Plateau, the Midwest Lowlands, the Driftless Area, the Tallgrass Prairie, the Big Woods, the Drift Prairie, and the Aspen Parkland.

 

• Anchors: Cahokia (St. Louis region), Greenland Eastern/Western Settlements, Great Lakes/Iroquoian fortified villages, Old South chiefdoms, Appalachians, St. Lawrence Valley, and Canadian Arctic settlements.

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• Peak of the Medieval Warm Period: bumper harvests fueled Cahokia; Great Lakes maize agriculture flourished.

• Greenland Norse farms prospered marginally, exporting to Europe.

Societies and Political Developments

• Cahokia reached zenith (~1200): 20,000+ people, Monk’s Mound, complex hierarchy.

• Iroquoian polities grew in Ontario/New York; longhouses and palisaded towns expanded.

• Algonquians in Maritimes and Appalachians organized fishing/farming societies.

• Greenland Norse remained tied to Europe via Iceland/Norway.

• Thule Inuit spread through Canadian Arctic, adapting to sea ice and whale hunting.

Economy and Trade

• Cahokia: maize surpluses sustained elite redistribution.

• Greenland Norse: walrus ivory, furs, hides.

• Great Lakes: copper, maize, fish.

• Prairies/Appalachians: mixed agriculture and bison/hunting.

• Inuit Arctic economy: seal, whale, caribou, sled dogs.

Belief and Symbolism

• Cahokia’s ceremonial plazas structured ritual and political authority.

• Iroquoian cosmologies (sky woman, earth-diver) tied to longhouse ritual.

• Norse Greenlanders: Catholic churches and Christian burials flourished.

Long-Term Significance

By 1251, Northeastern North America blended Cahokia’s urban power, Iroquoian expansion, Greenland Norse stability, and Inuit migration, linking the continent’s interior to the Atlantic edge.

Greenland’s Eskimo have completed their millennia-long migration here from continental North America by the thirteenth century.

Various rebellions and the rival claims of the late Norwegian king's brother, Earl Skule Baardson, had severely limited the power of King Haakon IV.

Skule at the traditional Thing (Øyrating) in Trøndelag during 1239 had allowed his supporters to proclaim him king of Norway.

Skulehas also tried, unsuccessfully, to win his other son-in-law, jarl Knut Haakonsson, to his side.

He had raised a military host against King Haakon and won a battle at Låka in Nannestad, but lost in Oslo.

His party is called the Vårbelgs, a reference to spring pelts of bad quality fur for poor people.

Skule is defeated in May 1240 by King Haakon and his supporters.

He seeks refuge in Elgeseter Priory in Nidaros but Haakon's men burn down the monastery and kill him.

With Skule’s death, the civil war era comes to an end.

Snorri Sturluson, active in the violent political struggles of his time, has served three terms as law speaker of the Icelandic commonwealth.

The sixty-two year old poet, historian, and diplomat is killed on September 23, 1241, at the instigation of King Haakon IV of Norway.

Greenland's west coast has been colonized from 986 by Icelanders and Norwegians in two settlements on fjords near the southwestern-most tip of the island.

They share the large island with the late Dorset culture inhabitants who occupy the northern and western parts, and later with the Thule culture arriving from the north.

By 1250, Greenland is home to about four thousand Christian Norsemen, who have submitted to Norse rule.

King Haakon had become able to devote his energies to strengthening and expanding his domain after the end of the civil war in Norway in 1240, erecting strong castles throughout Norway and adding Iceland and Greenland to his realm.