The Maan family, under orders from the governor of Damascus, had come to Lebanon in 1120 to defend it against the invading Crusaders.

They had settled on the southwestern slopes of the Lebanon Mountains and soon adopted the Druze religion.

Their authority began to rise with Fakhr ad Din I, who was permitted by Ottoman authorities to organize his own army, and reaches its peak with Fakhr ad Din II (1570-1635).

Fakhr ad Din I greatly enhances Lebanon's military and economic development, although his aspirations toward complete independence for Lebanon end tragically.

Noted for religious tolerance and suspected of being a Christian, Fakhr ad Din attempts to merge the country's different religious groups into one Lebanese community.

In an effort to attain complete independence for Lebanon, he concludes a secret agreement with Ferdinand I, duke of Tuscany in Italy, the two parties pledging to support each other against the Ottomans.

The Ottoman ruler in Constantinople, informed of this agreement, reacts violently and orders Ahmad al Hafiz, governor of Damascus, to attack Fakhr ad Din.

Realizing his inability to cope with the regular army of Al Hafiz, the Lebanese ruler goes to Tuscany in exile in 1613.

He returns to Lebanon in 1618, after his good friend Muhammad Pasha becomes governor of Damascus.

Following his return from Tuscany, Fakhr ad Din, realizing the need for a strong and disciplined armed force, channels his financial resources into building a regular army.

This army proves itself in 1623, when Mustafa Pasha, the new governor of Damascus, underestimating the capabilities of the Lebanese army, engages it in battle and is decisively defeated at Anjar in the Beqaa Valey.

Impressed by the victory of the Lebanese ruler, the sultan of Constantinople gives him the title of Sultan al Barr (Sultan of the Mountain).

In addition to building up the army, Fakhr ad Din, who becomes acquainted with Italian culture during his stay in Tuscany, initiates measures to modernize the country.

After forming close ties with the dukes of Tuscany and Florence and establishing diplomatic relations with them, he brings in architects, irrigation engineers, and agricultural experts from Italy in an effort to promote prosperity in the country.

He also strengthens Lebanon's strategic position by expanding its territory, building forts as far away as Palmyra in Syria, and gaining control of Palestine.

Finally, the Ottoman sultan Murad IV of Constantinople, wanting to thwart Lebanon's progress toward complete independence, orders Kutshuk, governor of Damascus, to attack the Lebanese ruler.

This time Fakhr ad Din is defeated, and he is executed in Constantinople in 1635.

No significant Maan rulers succeed Fakhr ad Din II.

The Druse, or Druze, descend from the original followers of al Hakim (d. 1021), considered an incarnation of God in 1017 while he functioned as the sixth caliph of Egypt’s Fatimid dynasty.

The Druze had become politically important during the eleventh century in the region of present Lebanon, especially as opponents of the then dominant Shi’ite sect.

The Maan family, under orders from the governor of Damascus, had come to Lebanon in 1120 to lead the struggle against the invading Crusaders.

Settling on the southwestern slopes of the Lebanon Mountains, they had soon adopted the Druze religion.

After the Ottoman conquest of the Mamluks in the early sixteenth century and the establishment of Ottoman controls in the region, Sultan Selim, regarding himself as the punisher of the unorthodox, particularly the militant Shi’i, had recognized the importance of placating the Druse by naming Fakhr ad-Din (d. 1544) of the house of Maan as the emir of the Druse in the Ottoman empire.

Following the execution, by the Ottomans, of Fakhr ad-Din’s son Korkmaz, in 1585, a civil war begins between the two predominant religious–political factions in the region, the Kaysis, led by Korkmaz’s son, Fakhr ad-Din II, and the Yamanis.

The Middle East: 1588–1599 CE

Ottoman Consolidation and Local Autonomy

Leadership and Succession in the Ottoman Empire

Sultan Murad III dies in 1595, succeeded by his son Mehmed III (1595–1603). Mehmed III continues to consolidate Ottoman control across the Middle East, dealing decisively with revolts and rebellions, especially in eastern Anatolia and Yemen. Ottoman administration remains stable and effective, maintaining control over vast territories despite ongoing challenges from local rulers and internal dissent.

Mount Lebanon's Autonomy Under Fakhr al-Din II

Mount Lebanon experiences significant autonomy under the Ottoman framework, particularly under Emir Fakhr al-Din II ibn Maan, a prominent Druze leader. Fakhr al-Din emerges victorious in 1591 from internal conflicts and aims to unify the feuding Maronite and Druze districts. Despite his Druze background, Fakhr al-Din is celebrated for religious tolerance, gaining significant support from the Christian Maronites who oppose the oppressive rule of Yusuf Sayfa, the Shi’i ruler of Tripoli. Fakhr al-Din navigates a complicated seven-year struggle for dominance, with the Ottomans shifting allegiances between him and Yusuf Sayfa.

Persian Developments and Safavid Stability

Stability Under Shah Abbas I

In Persia, Shah Abbas I (1588–1629) begins his transformative reign. He undertakes significant military reforms, bolstering the Safavid army with the introduction of gunpowder weaponry and reorganizing administrative structures. Shah Abbas revitalizes the Persian economy and begins diplomatic overtures with European powers to counterbalance Ottoman influence.

Cultural Flourishing under Safavid Patronage

The Safavid court in Isfahan continues to be a vibrant cultural hub. Shah Abbas actively patronizes arts and architecture, initiating ambitious projects that contribute to Isfahan’s reputation as a center of Persian culture. Persian miniature painting and poetry thrive, reflecting both traditional values and the emerging cosmopolitan influences under Abbas’s reign.

Economic and Strategic Dynamics

Rivalries and Maritime Trade

The Persian Gulf remains strategically crucial, with the Portuguese controlling key coastal strongholds. Local resistance, especially in Oman, grows significantly as indigenous Ibadi factions challenge Portuguese dominance through sustained rebellions and military engagements. These clashes underscore ongoing tensions between European maritime ambitions and local Middle Eastern powers.

Aleppo and Regional Trade Networks

Aleppo solidifies its position as the primary commercial hub in the region, attracting European traders eager to exchange Western goods for spices, textiles, and luxury items from Persia and India. The city’s economic prominence contributes significantly to Ottoman revenue, highlighting the intertwined nature of regional stability and economic prosperity.

Cultural Exchange and Legacy

Interaction Between Europe and the Middle East

Continuous trade with European merchants leads to cultural exchanges and diplomatic entanglements. Missionaries, scholars, and tourists from Europe frequent major Middle Eastern cities, bringing new ideas and fostering intellectual exchanges.

Legacy of the Era

This era is marked by strategic consolidation, cautious diplomacy, and cultural flourishing. The delicate balance of power maintained by Ottoman rulers, local autonomy in Lebanon under Fakhr al-Din, and the resurgence of Persian stability and culture under Shah Abbas shape the region’s socio-political and economic dynamics into the seventeenth century.

Mount Lebanon is self-governed under the Ottoman Empire.

Fakhr-al-Din Beik ibn Maan, the son of Emir Qorqmaz ibn Maan and Sit Nasab, of the Tanukhi family, has been given the title "Emir" or Prince in Arabic because the Maan dynasty has rule over Mount Lebanon in this period.

After Fakhr ad-Din and his Kaysis faction emerge victorious in 1591, he becomes determined to unite the perpetually feuding Maronite and Druze districts.

Although he himself is of the Druze religion, he is noted for religious tolerance, and has the support of the Christian Maronites of what is now northern Lebanon, who resent the tyranny of their ruler, Yusuf Sayfa, Shi’i ruler of Tripoli.

Fakhr ad-Din now becomes locked in what is to be a seven-year struggle for supremacy, a struggle complicated by the fact that the Ottomans, the nominal rulers of Lebanon, ally themselves first with Fakhr ad-Din and then with Yusuf Sayfa.

The Middle East: 1600–1611 CE

Ottoman Administration and Local Autonomy

In the opening decade of the seventeenth century, Ottoman administration under Sultan Ahmed I (r. 1603–1617) remains focused on securing the empire’s borders, improving internal governance, and reinforcing Ottoman authority against rival Safavid incursions from Persia. Ahmed I seeks to restore stability and consolidate imperial control across eastern Anatolia, Iraq, and Syria, addressing chronic rebellions and unrest among tribal groups.

Mount Lebanon Under Fakhr al-Din II

In Mount Lebanon, Emir Fakhr al-Din II ibn Maan, a prominent Druze ruler, continues his struggle for dominance after defeating rival factions by 1591. Fakhr al-Din is known for religious tolerance and gains significant support among the region’s Maronite Christian population, who have long resented the oppressive rule of Yusuf Sayfa, the Shi’i leader of Tripoli. Throughout this era, Fakhr al-Din’s political acumen enables him to deftly manage shifting Ottoman allegiances, solidifying his control and enhancing the autonomy and prosperity of Mount Lebanon.

By 1608, Fakhr al-Din further expands Lebanon’s internal cohesion, promoting economic growth through improved agriculture, trade, and infrastructure projects. His leadership establishes Lebanon as an increasingly influential semi-autonomous entity within the Ottoman political framework.

Persian Consolidation Under Shah Abbas I

In Persia, Shah Abbas I (r. 1588–1629) continues his reign of cultural and political renewal, building upon successful military reforms and strengthening Persian authority against external threats. He achieves significant territorial gains against Ottoman forces, notably regaining Azerbaijan and further consolidating Persian control over western territories. Shah Abbas actively fosters diplomatic alliances with European powers to balance Ottoman influence and secure trade advantages.

Under his patronage, the Safavid capital at Isfahan thrives culturally and economically, as Abbas commissions grand architectural works and supports the arts, enhancing the city’s prestige as a vibrant cultural center of the Islamic world.

Portuguese Influence and Local Resistance in the Persian Gulf

During this period, Portuguese power in the Persian Gulf remains contested by sustained local resistance, particularly among indigenous Ibadi factions in Oman. Local Omani forces frequently challenge Portuguese coastal strongholds, progressively eroding Portuguese control over strategic ports. However, the Yarubid dynasty, which will play a decisive role in expelling the Portuguese, has not yet emerged as rulers, and their rise to power remains a future development.

Nonetheless, by 1611, Portuguese dominance in the Gulf is increasingly precarious, reflecting persistent local resentment and ongoing conflict that will set the stage for subsequent shifts in regional power.

Aleppo’s Economic Significance

Aleppo remains the primary commercial hub connecting Europe with the Middle East. Its markets attract European traders seeking spices, textiles, and luxury goods from Persia, India, and beyond. Aleppo’s economic significance bolsters Ottoman revenue and contributes to the broader integration of the Middle East into global trading networks, enhancing diplomatic and cultural exchanges between Europe and the Ottoman Empire.

Legacy of the Era

This era is defined by strategic Ottoman and Persian consolidation, the rise of local autonomy in Mount Lebanon under Fakhr al-Din, and ongoing resistance to Portuguese maritime dominance in the Persian Gulf. These developments significantly shape regional political dynamics and economic prosperity as the Middle East transitions into the mid-seventeenth century.

Druze ruler Fakhr ad-Din II, unlike his Yamani party foe, Yusuf Sayfa, the Shi’i ruler of Tripoli, has cultivated friendships and support among both Sunnis and Shi’ites, and he is the first to have united the city’s Druze and Maronite Christian districts.

By 1600, the military activity by his private army has gained him control of Sidon and Beirut on the coast as well as the enmity of both the Porte and Tripoli’s ruler; as a consequence, fighting has begun between Fakhr ad-Dion’s Kaysis party and the Yamanis.

The Porte had continued to waver in its support, favoring first one party and then the other, until Fakhr ad-Din’s victories became consistent.

With the defeat of Yusuf Sayfa in 1607, the Ottomans, who had aided Fakhr ad-Din in this triumph, had finally recognized his authority over the Druze and Maronite districts of the Lebanon Mountains.

To prevent Ottoman interference in his emirate, he has regularly sent ambassadors and bribes to Istanbul.

However, because Fakhr ad-Din is still uncertain of Ottoman support, however, and is aware of the Ottoman preoccupation with war in Europe and Asia, he had secretly allied the region with Ferdinand I, duke of Tuscany, in 1608, seeking trade and security, the two parties pledging to support each other against the Ottomans.

Fakhr ad-Din’s increasing ties with the Grand Duchy of Tuscany have aroused the suspicion of the Ottomans.

Ahmed, informed of Fakhr’s secret treaty with Tuscany, is alarmed by this development, regarding it as making possible a crusader state in the Fertile Crescent.

The sultan in 1611 orders Ahmad al Hafiz, the pasha of Damascus, to begin a punitive expedition against Fakhr ad-Din.

Fakhr-al-Din, holding territories from Nazareth in the south to Mount Carmel in the north, and supported by a forty thousand-man army, is a difficult opponent, and the Ottoman police action against him fails initially.

The Middle East: 1612–1623 CE

Ottoman Stability and Persian Rivalry

In this period, the Ottoman Empire, under Sultan Ahmed I (r. 1603–1617) and his successor Mustafa I (1617–1618, 1622–1623) as well as Osman II (1618–1622), continues its efforts to maintain internal stability and assert dominance in the face of external threats. Persistent rivalry with the Safavid dynasty in Persia shapes regional political dynamics, particularly in Iraq, the Caucasus, and eastern Anatolia. The shifting control of Baghdad remains a crucial flashpoint between the two powerful empires, with both sides attempting to consolidate their influence over this strategic and symbolic city.

Fakhr al-Din II’s Ascendancy in Mount Lebanon

In Mount Lebanon, Emir Fakhr al-Din II ibn Maan further solidifies his semi-autonomous rule. By skillfully navigating the complexities of Ottoman politics, Fakhr al-Din strengthens his control over the Druze and Maronite communities, uniting them in an effective regional government. His diplomatic efforts include establishing cordial relations with European states, notably Tuscany, to bolster Lebanon’s economy through enhanced trade and cultural exchanges. Despite tensions with local Ottoman officials, Fakhr al-Din continues to maintain considerable regional autonomy.

Persian Renewal Under Shah Abbas I

The Safavid ruler Shah Abbas I (r. 1588–1629) further enhances Persian stability through political reforms, military innovation, and robust diplomacy. His strategic campaigns result in the recovery and consolidation of territory from the Ottomans, particularly in western Persia and the southern Caucasus region. The city of Isfahan continues to thrive under his patronage, growing into an impressive cultural capital featuring grand architectural projects and flourishing artistic traditions that reflect Persian cultural renaissance and Safavid prestige.

Continued Portuguese Presence and Local Resistance in the Persian Gulf

Throughout this era, Portuguese control in the Persian Gulf remains tenuous due to persistent local opposition from indigenous Omani tribes. Although the Portuguese still hold strategic coastal strongholds, such as Muscat, their influence steadily diminishes amid continuous challenges from regional groups who vigorously contest their presence. These struggles gradually weaken Portuguese domination and set the stage for significant political shifts in the region in the near future. The Yarubids, who will decisively challenge Portuguese rule, have yet to emerge as a dominant political force at this time.

Aleppo’s Commercial and Cultural Vitality

Aleppo maintains its crucial role as the primary trade hub between Europe and the Middle East. European merchants frequent Aleppo's markets, bringing wealth and stimulating cultural and intellectual exchanges. The city’s continued economic significance enhances Ottoman prosperity and reinforces Aleppo’s prominent position within international commerce.

Legacy of the Era

The years between 1612 and 1623 are characterized by ongoing Ottoman-Persian rivalry, the consolidation of local autonomy under Fakhr al-Din II in Mount Lebanon, and growing regional resistance to Portuguese domination in the Persian Gulf. These dynamics, coupled with vibrant trade and cultural exchanges centered around Aleppo and Isfahan, significantly influence the political, economic, and cultural trajectory of the Middle East leading into the mid-seventeenth century.

The popularity of Druse leader Fakhr-al-Din has alarmed the Ottomans, who issue authority for Hafiz Ahmed Pasha, Muhafiz of Damascus, to mount an attack on Lebanon in 1613, in order to reduce Fakhr-al-Din's growing power.

Facing Hafez's army of fifty thousand men, Fakhr-al-Din chooses exile to Italy, where in Tuscany he will be received by the Medici Family, leaving affairs in the hands of his brother Emir Yunus and his son Emir Ali Beg.

Fakhr-al-Din's exile does not prompt the Lebanese army to surrender to Hafiz Ahmed Pasha's army.

They maintain their positions while the military operations rage until Emir Yunus manages through negotiations and persuasion to bring an end to the killings, securing the retreat of the Ottoman army.