Asia (Roman province)

The Anatolian provinces enjoy prosperity and security after the accession of the Roman emperor Augustus (r. 27 BCE -CE 14), and for generations thereafter.

All of Anatolia except Armenia, which is a Roman client-state, is integrated into the imperial system by CE 43.

The cities are administered by local councils and send delegates to provincial assemblies that advise the Roman governors.

Their inhabitants are citizens of a cosmopolitan world state, subject to a common legal system and sharing a common Roman identity.

Roman in allegiance and Greek in culture, the region nonetheless retains its ethnic complexity.

Alexandria, …

…Miletus, and …

…Smyrna flourish as both producers and commercial centers.

From this settled prosperity, an urban Greek elite arises.

The Gospel According to Luke, the third and longest of the Gospels—and classified, because of its similarities to the Gospels according to Mark and Matthew, with them as the Synoptic Gospels—is probably written between 80 and 90 by a Gentile Christian who goes on to writes the Acts of the Apostles as a sequel (although tradition ascribes the work to Luke, a companion of Paul).

Luke's Gospel, which, in common with the other Gospels, relates the principal events of Christ's public life, divides naturally into five major sections: a prologue; infancy narrative; ministry in Galilee; journey to Jerusalem; and the passion and resurrection.

The conclusion prepares the stage for the spread of the Christian word (as recounted in the Acts).

The Gospel of Luke is unique in relating the parable of the good Samaritan, the prodigal son, and Christ's words to the women of Jerusalem and to the good thief.

Examples of the prominence Luke accords women include the story of Elizabeth, Mary's role in the infancy narrative, and the widow of Naim.

Luke also contains three hymns (later an important component of liturgy): the Magnificat, the Benedictus, and the Nunc Dimittis.

The traditional view is that Luke, who was not an eyewitness of Jesus' ministry, wrote his gospel after gathering the best sources of information within his reach (Luke 1:1-4).

Most modern critical scholarship concludes that Luke used the Gospel of Mark for his chronology and a hypothetical sayings source Q document for many of Jesus' teachings.

Luke may also have drawn from independent written records.

Traditional Christian scholarship has dated the composition of the gospel to the early 60s, while higher criticism dates it to the later decades of the first century.

While the traditional view that Paul's companion Luke authored the gospel is still often put forward, a number of possible contradictions between Acts and Paul's letters lead many scholars to dispute this account.

The Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles were both written by the same author.

The most direct evidence comes from the prefaces of each book.

Both prefaces were addressed to Theophilus, and the preface of Acts explicitly references "my former book" about the life of Jesus.

Furthermore, there are linguistic and theological similarities between the two works, suggesting that they have a common author.

Both books also contain common interests.

Linguistic and theological agreements and cross-references between the books indicate that they are from the same author.

Those biblical scholars who consider the two books a single, two-volume work often refer to both together as Luke-Acts.

Paul’s former assistant Timothy is eventually created bishop of Ephesus, and in about 80 is martyred here when he protests orgies accompanying the worship of Artemis.

Some adherents of the growing Christian movement have begun to spiritualize Christ by denying his real humanity.

Docetist teachings concerning the person of Christ, based on a Hellenistic dualism that maintains that the material world is either unreal or positively evil, emerge in the later first century CE.

According to Docetism, the eternal Son of God did not really become human or suffer on the cross; he only appeared to do so.

Docetism is most commonly attributed to the Gnostics, many of whom believe that matter is evil, and as a result God would not take on a material body.

This statement is rooted in the idea that a divine spark is imprisoned within the material body, and that the material body is in itself an obstacle, deliberately created by an evil, lesser god (the demiurge) to prevent man from seeing his divine origin.

Docetism can be further explained as the view that since the human body is temporary and the spirit is eternal, the body of Jesus must have been an illusion and, likewise, his crucifixion.

Even so, saying that the human body is temporary has a tendency to undercut the importance of the belief in resurrection of the dead and the goodness of created matter, and is in opposition to this orthodox view.

Docetism is an aberrant form of early Christianity, developing around 50 CE, which is most prominently espoused by Gnostic sects.

Its origin within Christianity is obscure and it has been argued that its origins were in heterodox Judaism or Oriental and Grecian philosophies.

Some of the books of the New Testament condemn docetic teachings and the early creeds developed to counter docetic beliefs.

First-century Gnostic Christian groups develop docetic interpretations partly as a way to make Christian teachings more acceptable to pagan ways of thinking of divinity.

The Epistles of John (traditionally ascribed to John the Apostle), probably written in the Roman province of Asia (western Anatolia) toward the end of the first century CE or the beginning of the second, are addressed to a general readership rather than to specified churches or individuals.

These "Johannine Epistles" address the problem of Docetism several times.

The first epistle, written in Ephesus between the years 95–110, bears no indication of its authorship; the author of the second and third epistles styles himself "the elder."

The first, written to churches in Anatolia, conveys a series of standard tests by which people can know that they possess eternal life.

By the test of love, the true follower of Christ loves as Jesus loved.

The test of belief in the incarnation—that the eternal son of God, the second person of the Trinity, became man in the person of Jesus Christ—is meant to counter those, such as the Docetists, who claim special knowledge and deny that Christ came in the flesh.

The second epistle, a short note addressing the church as the "elect lady," cautions a local congregation against teachers claiming special knowledge and encourages members to be hospitable to one another.

The third epistle also brief, encourages Gaius, a follower of the truth, to display kindness to the traveling faithful who pass his way.

Cappadocia had been established in CE 17 as an imperial province, meaning that its governor (legatus Augusti) is directly appointed by the emperor.

As the Empire's northeasternmost province, it retains a permanent military garrison of two legions and several Auxiliary troops.

At the end of the first century under Emperor Trajan, the province also incorporates the regions of Pontus and Armenia Minor.

Near East (100–111 CE): Early Christianity, Jewish Resilience, and Roman Influence

In this era, the Near East experiences ongoing religious developments and consolidation of Roman rule. Christianity, having originated in Judea in the first century CE, expands notably throughout the Roman Empire, especially in urban centers like Jerusalem, Antioch, and Edessa. Although Christianity emerges from Jewish traditions, early controversies arise regarding adherence to Jewish customs, leading to friction and eventual separation from traditional Judaism.

Jewish religious life continues robustly through the Pharisaic movement, emphasizing the redaction of the Talmud and awaiting the restoration of Israel through divine intervention. The Pharisees maintain significant influence within Jewish communities despite the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE.

Technological and cultural innovations continue under Roman dominance. Cast glass windows first appear around 100 CE in Alexandria, Egypt, representing a notable advance in material technology, despite limited transparency.

Lydia, incorporated into the Roman province of Asia since 133 BCE, remains an economically vibrant region. Jewish communities and early Christian groups thrive here, as reflected in the Acts of the Apostles, mentioning the merchant Lydia from Thyatira.

Legacy of the Era

Between 100 and 111 CE, Christianity firmly takes root, defining itself increasingly distinct from its Jewish origins, while Jewish religious leadership adapts to life without the Temple. Technological advancements like glass windows and the continuing integration of Anatolia into Roman economic and cultural networks highlight the multifaceted Roman influence shaping the Near East's future development.

Lydia, as the other western parts of the Attalid legacy in 133 BCE when the Romans entered the Lydian capital Sardis, had become part of the province of Asia, a very rich Roman province, worthy of a governor of the high rank of proconsul.

The whole west of Asia Minor had Jewish colonies very early, and Christianity was also soon present there.

Acts of the Apostles 16:14-15 mentions the baptism of a merchant woman called "Lydia" who came from Thyatira, in what had once been the satrapy of Lydia.