The Middle East: 1420–1431 CE

Recovery, Cultural Flourishing, and Philosophical Insights

Resurgence of Georgian Power

The Kingdom of Georgia, benefiting from the weakening and fragmentation of Mongol successor states, experiences a significant revival. Its domains, severely reduced by Timur’s invasions in the late-fourteenth century, once again stretch across the Caucasus. Georgia renews and expands its economic and political ties with the enduring Empire of Trebizond, its key trading partner along the Black Sea coast, which has successfully preserved its independence throughout the turbulent preceding centuries.

Timurid Stability and Cultural Flourishing

Under Shah Rukh, the Timurids consolidate their hold on eastern Persia and Central Asia from their capital at Herat. Shah Rukh, after being initially repelled by the Kara Koyunlu under Qara Yusuf, successfully stabilizes his territories, fostering significant prosperity, scholarly activity, and a cultural renaissance centered on his court, contributing significantly to Persian art and literature.

Internal Discord within the Kara Koyunlu

The Kara Koyunlu experience substantial internal turmoil following Qara Yusuf’s death in 1420. His successor, Qara Iskander, faces persistent threats to his authority from rival siblings, most notably his influential brother Jahan Shah. Despite these internal challenges, the Kara Koyunlu maintain control over Baghdad and its environs, preserving their dominion despite factional tensions.

Ottoman Empire: Renewal under Murad II

In Anatolia, the fractured beyliks continue local rivalries, but Murad II (r. 1421–1451) of the Ottoman Empire stabilizes and reasserts authority over western Anatolia and the Balkans. His prudent leadership fosters recovery from Timur’s prior devastations, laying critical groundwork for future Ottoman territorial ambitions.

Sufi Intellectual and Philosophical Developments

This period marks a notable flourishing of Sufi philosophy, exemplified by Abdul Karim Jili. Descendant of the eminent saint Gilani, founder of the Qadiriyya dervish order, Jili travels extensively, including to India, and resides in Yemen from 1393 to 1403. His literary achievements, particularly the influential work Universal Man, systematize and expand upon the theosophical monism of Ibn Arabi. Jili articulates a sophisticated philosophical system regarding the Absolute Being as an all-embracing Self, significantly influencing Islamic thought and later thinkers such as the Indian Muslim philosopher Allama Iqbal.

Legacy of the Era

By the end of this era, the Middle East is marked by Georgian political resurgence, internal rivalries among the Kara Koyunlu, stabilized and culturally vibrant Timurid rule in Persia, Ottoman recovery and consolidation, and profound developments in Sufi philosophical traditions.

A dispute arises in 1485 over a Turkmen territory ruled by the Mamluk-supported Duldakir dynasty in Cappadocia.

The Mamluks—against whom the military leaders of Ottoman sultan Bayezid I press for revenge in retaliation for Mamluk support of his rebellious brother in the recent civil war—interfere in Cappadocia by stirring up eastern Turkmen nomads and asserting authority over Lesser Armenia.

The Ottomans initiate a series of six annual campaigns against the Mamluks, five of which end indecisively and one of which ends, in 1488, in a small victory by the Mamluks.

Peace negotiations in 1491 gain the Mamluks territorial concessions and suspend fighting.

Bayezid now turns to the east, where previous conquests as far as the Euphrates had brought the Ottomans up to the borders of the Mamluk empire.

A dispute arises in 1485 over a Turkmen territory ruled by the Mamluk-supported Duldakir (Dhu al-Qadr dynasty in Cappadocia), which controls much of Cilicia and the mountains south of Lake Van.

The Ottomans again send a major army against the Mamluk Sultanate in 1487, consisting in a great number of regular army units and Janissaries, supported by the fleet and the forces of Dulkadir, and led by the Grand Vizier Koca Davud Pasha.

Davud Pasha initially plans an all-out offensive expedition, but his plan is canceled by Bayezid II, who assigns him to attack the Turgutlu and Varsak tribes.

When Davud Pasha reaches the Turgut and Varsak territories, the Varsak leaders, including the chief of the tribe, submit to him and swear allegiance to the Ottoman Empire.

The Mamluks—against whom the military leaders of Ottoman sultan Bayezid press for revenge in retaliation for Mamluk support of his rebellious brother in the recent civil war—interfere in Cappadocia by stirring up eastern Turkmen nomads and asserting authority over Lesser Armenia.

Hostilities had broken out in 1486 when Sultan Qaitbay contested with Bayezid the possession of some border towns in Palestine.

The Ottomans, desirous of a share in control of the Muslim holy cities of Mecca and Medina, had initiated a series of annual campaigns against the Mamluks, five of which end indecisively and one of which ends, in 1488, in a small victory by the Mamluks.