There are also tribes that practice domesticating animals as far north as Turkey, and as far south as the Zagros Mountains.

The Chalcolithic, or copper- and stone-working technology, encompasses the Fertile Crescent by 4500 BCE.

The Middle East (3933–3790 BCE): Urbanization, Metallurgy, and Cultural Transitions

Susa and the Uruk Period

Between 3933 and 3790 BCE, the site of Susa in southwestern Iran became an important urban center during the Uruk period, specifically in its Susa I phase (4000–3700 BCE). Monumental architecture emerged during this era, exemplified by the construction of the "High Terrace," which would later expand substantially during the Susa II phase (3700–3100 BCE) to approximately sixty by forty-five meters. The remarkable artifacts discovered at Susa provide crucial insights into the administrative origins and early writing systems of the Uruk period.

Early Bronze Production

During this era, the earliest known bronze artifacts appeared on the Iranian plateau, notably at Tepe Yahya around 3800 BCE. This early bronze, likely resulting from accidental mixtures of copper with arsenic or antimony, represented a significant technological advancement. Known as "arsenical bronze," such alloys demonstrated superior properties compared to pure copper. While arsenic contamination was common in copper ores, the deliberate creation of arsenical bronze remains a subject of debate, although its presence clearly indicates the technological progression during this period.

Early Settlement at Ur

The city of Ur, at the time located near the mouth of the Euphrates on the Persian Gulf, provides evidence of early occupation dating back to the Ubaid period around 3800 BCE. Early excavations in the 1920s uncovered deep archaeological layers initially interpreted as evidence of the biblical Great Flood. Modern understanding, however, attributes these layers to regular flooding from the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, along with substantial erosion by water and wind. Ur would later flourish as an urban center during the third millennium BCE.

Uruk and Urban Hegemony

The city of Uruk, located east of the modern Euphrates riverbed near As-Samawah, Iraq, became the focal point of the Uruk period, a protohistoric era spanning from about 4000 to 3100 BCE. According to Sumerian mythology, Uruk was founded by Enmerkar, who established kingship and constructed the celebrated Eanna temple dedicated to the goddess Inanna. Around 3800 BCE, Uruk, along with Nippur, emerged as dominant urban centers of approximately twenty hectares each, asserting regional hegemony over surrounding smaller settlements.

Ubaid Art and Social Structure

The Mesopotamian sculpture of the late Ubaid period featured terra cotta statuettes of gods, men, and women. The culture, originating from southern Mesopotamia, maintained clear connections to earlier regional traditions. The Ubaid period notably saw the development of distinct social divisions between agricultural peasants, nomadic pastoralists, and hunter-fisher communities living in reed huts along the Arabian littoral.

Climatic Shifts and Cultural Decline in Arabia

The Arabian Peninsula experienced a significant climatic shift around 3800 BCE, marking the abrupt end of the Arabian Bifacial/Ubaid period in eastern Arabia and the Oman peninsula. The increased aridity, likely linked to the 5.9 kiloyear event at the end of the Older Peron, led to the cessation of semi-desert nomadism and the disappearance of human occupation for nearly a millennium, a period known as the "Dark Millennium."

Areni-1 Cave Discoveries in Armenia

Meanwhile, the cave site Areni-1 in Armenia revealed groundbreaking insights into Bronze Age civilization, showcasing an advanced winemaking enterprise, diverse pottery styles, and numerous Copper Age artifacts dating back approximately six thousand years. These discoveries, including the world’s oldest known winery and leather shoe, reflect sophisticated domestic and agricultural practices, highlighting the broad cultural advancements across the region during this period.

This epoch marks significant developments in urbanization, metallurgy, and sociocultural organization, profoundly shaping subsequent historical trajectories in the ancient Middle East.

The Middle East (3789–3646 BCE): Administration, Writing, and Early Urban Conflict

Cylinder Seals and Administration at Susa

Between 3789 and 3646 BCE, the cylinder seals of the Susa I and Susa II periods exhibited rich iconography, uniquely emphasizing scenes of everyday life, alongside depictions of a local figure identified by scholar P. Amiet as a "proto-royal figure," potentially an antecedent to the "priest-kings" of the Late Uruk era. These seals, together with bullae and clay tokens, suggest the growing importance of administrative practices and sophisticated accounting techniques at Susa during the second half of the fourth millennium BCE. Significantly, Susa also yielded some of the earliest known writing tablets, underscoring its critical role in the development of writing systems.

Broader Cultural Context in Susiana

Other regional sites in Susiana, such as Jaffarabad and Chogha Mish, similarly reflect substantial archaeological developments from this period, illustrating the widespread nature of these administrative and cultural transformations.

Tell Brak and Early Urbanization

Meanwhile, a small settlement existed at Tell Brak in northeastern Syria, in the present-day Al-Hasakah Governorate, as early as 6000 BCE, with materials indicating a continuous occupation through the Late Neolithic Halaf culture into the subsequent Ubaid and Uruk periods. Excavations and surface surveys indicate that Tell Brak developed into an urban center contemporaneously with, or even slightly earlier than, well-known cities of southern Mesopotamia, such as Uruk.

Recent archaeological excavations at Tell Brak have uncovered dramatic evidence, including a series of mass graves dating to approximately 3800–3600 BCE, suggesting that the urbanization process may have been accompanied by significant warfare. Additionally, a notable domestic structure from around 3700 BCE featured a long, narrow courtyard with a domed oven, suggesting social gatherings or communal activities. Skeletal remains from the site indicate that Tell Brak was later a notable source of donkey-onager mules utilized for pulling wheeled carts prior to the introduction of horses around 2300 BCE.

Metallurgical Advancements

During this period, the production of the earliest known bronze artifacts, such as those previously discovered at Tepe Yahya in Iran, marked significant advancements in metallurgy, contributing to the technological sophistication of the era.

This age highlights pivotal advancements in administrative and writing practices, the complexities associated with urbanization and warfare, and continuing metallurgical innovations, which collectively shaped the trajectory of early urban societies in the ancient Middle East.

The Middle East (3646–3502 BCE): Expansion of Urban Centers and Technological Progress

Growth of Urban Settlements

Between 3646 and 3502 BCE, urban centers throughout Mesopotamia and the broader Middle East experienced significant expansion and development. Settlements such as Susa, Uruk, and Tell Brak continued to evolve, demonstrating increasingly complex urban planning and community organization. These cities expanded their influence, becoming central nodes within emerging trade and administrative networks.

Urban Planning and Infrastructure

This period saw significant advancements in urban infrastructure, including the construction of larger monumental buildings, expanded city walls, and more sophisticated public works such as roads and drainage systems. Such infrastructure supported growing urban populations and facilitated more efficient administration, trade, and social interaction.

Administrative and Writing Systems

Building upon earlier developments, the administrative systems within these urban centers became increasingly sophisticated. Cylinder seals, tokens, bullae, and early tablets continued to serve as vital administrative tools, supporting the growth of bureaucracy and record-keeping. The progressive complexity of these writing systems marked a critical step toward the formalization of writing and accounting practices that would underpin future civilizations.

Technological and Economic Advances

Metallurgical technology continued to advance, with the production and distribution of bronze artifacts becoming more widespread. This era witnessed further refinement of metallurgical techniques, improving the quality and utility of metal tools and weapons, and contributing significantly to agricultural efficiency, craftsmanship, and warfare capabilities.

Cultural Interactions and Exchange

Regional trade networks became increasingly interconnected, facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies between urban centers. This integration helped spread innovations such as metallurgy, pottery styles, and architectural techniques throughout the region, enhancing cultural cohesion and economic prosperity.

This age represents a vital period of urban growth, technological innovation, and administrative sophistication, significantly shaping the societal complexity and cultural development of the ancient Middle East.

The Middle East (3501–3358 BCE): Origins of Urban Civilization and Writing

Rise of Sumerian Cities

Between 3501 and 3358 BCE, the first cities began to emerge prominently in southern Mesopotamia, settled by populations migrating from northern regions. These early urban settlements laid the foundations for civilization in the region, introducing new organizational structures, specialized labor, and advanced infrastructure.

The Sumerian Enigma

The Sumerians, identified as the foundational builders of civilization, spoke a unique language unrelated to any other known language, ancient or modern. The origins of the Sumerian people and the precise conditions that led to their societal emergence remain one of history’s enduring mysteries.

The Kish Tablet and Early Writing

A significant archaeological artifact from this era, the Kish tablet, discovered at Tell al-Uhaymir in the ancient Sumerian city of Kish (modern Babil Governorate, Iraq), dates back to around 3500 BCE (middle Uruk period). Currently represented by a plaster cast in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, the Kish tablet contains proto-cuneiform signs, marking it as potentially the earliest known written document. Its pictographic writing represents a critical transitional stage from proto-writing to the more developed, partly syllabic cuneiform script.

The Kish tablet is widely regarded as the earliest document from the "protoliterate period," an era spanning approximately 3500 to 2900 BCE in both Egypt and Mesopotamia. This makes it an essential artifact in understanding the origins and development of writing.

Monumental Architecture at Tell Brak

At Tell Brak, public buildings from this period include the renowned "Eye Temple" and a significant administrative building with associated workshops. The Eye Temple, constructed around 3500–3300 BCE and excavated in 1937–1938, was named for the hundreds of small alabaster "eye idol" figurines embedded into its mudbrick construction. Richly adorned with clay cones, copper panels, and gold work, the temple's elaborate decoration was comparable to contemporary Sumerian temples, reflecting the cultural and religious complexities of early urban society.

Technological and Cultural Advances

The earliest known production of bronze artifacts continued, reinforcing technological and economic growth in the region. These advancements contributed significantly to the increasing complexity of urban society, enabling new forms of artistic expression, craft specialization, and trade.

This age represents a critical juncture in human history, marked by the rise of urban civilization, the initial development of writing, and significant advancements in architecture and metallurgy, fundamentally shaping the trajectory of ancient Middle Eastern societies.

The Middle East (3357–3214 BCE): Early Writing, Sumerian Influence, and Urban Growth

Uruk and the Dawn of Writing

Between 3357 and 3214 BCE, clay tablets discovered at Uruk, inscribed with Sumerian pictorial script, became some of the earliest examples of recorded writing, dating to approximately 3300 BCE. Among these tablets is the renowned Sumerian King List, an essential historical record documenting the kings of early Sumerian civilization.

Arrival and Dominance of the Sumerians

Around 3300 BCE, the Sumerians—a group whose non-Semitic, non-Indo-European language uniquely dominated the region—likely migrated into southern Mesopotamia from areas around Anatolia. Despite their profound influence, the origins and emergence of the Sumerian civilization remain largely mysterious, contributing to ongoing scholarly intrigue.

Uruk’s Cultural and Economic Influence

The Sumerian traders and colonists from Uruk significantly influenced surrounding regions through cultural and economic exchanges, spreading the distinctive Uruk period culture. However, their long-term military control over distant colonies, such as Tell Brak, proved unsustainable, and such dominance gradually diminished.

Urbanization and Social Complexity at Uruk

Uruk itself emerged not only as one of the earliest urban centers but as the driving force behind the urbanization process during the Uruk Period (4000–3200 BCE). Over eight centuries, the city transformed from a cluster of small agricultural villages into a major urban center with established bureaucratic governance, an organized military, and a socially stratified population. Unlike other settlements averaging around ten hectares, Uruk was significantly larger and more complex.

Environmental and Agricultural Foundations

Uruk’s growth was facilitated significantly by its favorable geographic setting in the fertile alluvial plains of southern Mesopotamia along the Euphrates River. The domestication of grains native to the Zagros foothills, coupled with advanced irrigation techniques, supported diverse and productive agriculture, enabling Uruk to develop into the largest and most densely populated Sumerian settlement.

Cultural Expansion and Technological Development

This period also continued witnessing important technological advances, particularly in metallurgy, with increasing sophistication in bronze artifact production, further enhancing the region's economic and cultural dynamism.

This era signifies a transformative stage characterized by the advent of early writing, the consolidation of Sumerian cultural dominance, significant urban expansion, and technological innovation, profoundly shaping the developmental trajectory of ancient Middle Eastern civilization.

The Middle East (3213–3070 BCE): Cuneiform Script and Urban Peak at Uruk

Development and Spread of Cuneiform Writing

By 3200 BCE, the development of cuneiform script marked a significant advancement in Sumerian society, transforming administrative, economic, and cultural practices. This innovative writing system rapidly spread beyond Mesopotamia, influencing cultures such as the Egyptians to the west and the Elamites in southwestern Iran, highlighting a critical phase in the early history of written communication.

Theocratic Governance and Social Organization

During the Uruk period, Sumerian cities likely operated under a theocratic form of governance, typically headed by a priest-king known as an ensi. These leaders were assisted by councils of elders comprising both men and women, suggesting a relatively inclusive governance structure. Scholars propose that the later Sumerian pantheon may have been modeled after these political and social arrangements, reflecting the societal values and organizational principles of the time.

Absence of Institutionalized Violence

Notably, archaeological evidence indicates minimal institutionalized violence or standing armies during this era, with few towns showing evidence of defensive walls. This lack of militarization suggests that the period was characterized more by peaceful urban development and communal stability rather than by military aggression.

Uruk’s Urban Apex

Uruk reached unprecedented levels of urbanization during this time, becoming the most populous city in the world, surpassing fifty thousand inhabitants for the first time. Its growth was underpinned by advanced agricultural techniques, efficient administration, and robust trade networks, firmly establishing Uruk as a preeminent center of civilization in ancient Mesopotamia.

Continuing Technological Advancements

Technological advancements continued to flourish, particularly in metallurgy, where improved bronze manufacturing enhanced economic productivity and craftsmanship, further strengthening urban economies and facilitating regional trade.

This era highlights critical advancements in writing, governance, urbanization, and technology, underscoring a significant moment in the cultural and societal evolution of the ancient Middle East.

The Middle East (3069–2926 BCE): Urban Expansion, Technological Advances, and Cultural Interaction

Early Settlement at Konya and Tepe Yahya

Between 3069 and 2926 BCE, the area around modern Konya (ancient Iconium), situated on a plateau at approximately 1,027 meters above sea level, experienced its first settlement. Concurrently, the site of Tepe Yahya in Iran, inhabited intermittently since 4500 BCE, flourished significantly from 3100 to 2900 BCE as a critical hub for commerce and overland trade. Notably, Tepe Yahya became renowned for exporting chlorite, used primarily in textile processing.

Byblos and Canaanite Civilization

Around 3000 BCE, Byblos (biblical Gebal), which had roots dating back to Neolithic times, transformed into a dynamic seaport and trade center. Evidence from this era includes well-built, uniform housing, marking the rise of urban life and early stages of Canaanite civilization. Byblos developed prosperous trading relationships, notably with Egypt, exporting products such as cedar, olive oil, and wine, while importing luxury items from the Nile Valley.

Phoenician Cities and Maritime Trade

The region now identified as Lebanon, first appearing prominently in historical records around 3000 BCE, featured coastal cities inhabited by the Canaanites—later known as Phoenicians due to their famed purple dye. Each city-state, such as Tyre, Sidon, Byblos (Gubla), and Beirut (Berytus), emerged as specialized and independent centers of maritime trade, religion, and commerce.

Greater Syria: Early Historical Context

The broader geographical region historically known as "Greater Syria" encompassed modern-day Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Israel. Ancient Egyptian records from the fourth millennium BCE mention expeditions to the region, particularly for valuable timber resources from the Ammanus and Lebanon mountain ranges, illustrating early economic and cultural interactions.

Innovations in Metallurgy and Transportation

Sumerians of this period advanced significantly in metallurgy, refining techniques to smelt copper and produce bronze alloys, initially using arsenic bronze and later developing tin bronze, first evident around 3000 BCE at Susa. Simultaneously, the earliest known animal-drawn wheeled vehicles appeared, revolutionizing transport and replacing earlier sledges. Clay tablets from Uruk (circa 3200–3100 BCE) depict these early wheeled carts, underscoring this critical technological advancement.

Proto-Elamite Script and Urban Developments

Proto-Elamite culture in southwestern Iran, contemporary with Sumer, transitioned from pictographic to hieroglyphic script around 3000 BCE. Despite remaining undeciphered, this writing represents an important early communication system, showing possible connections to contemporary Mesopotamian scripts.

Religious Architecture and Urban Complexity in Uruk

In Uruk, the White Temple dedicated to the god Anu, constructed around 3000 BCE, became a striking symbol of political and religious authority. Built atop an elevated, artificial mound, it featured bright gypsum plaster surfaces intended to dominate the surrounding plain visually. Uruk's social and economic structures evolved significantly, aided by substantial agricultural surpluses and expanding trade networks, fostering specialization of labor, extensive pottery production, and early tablet writing.

Cultural and Societal Changes

By this period, Mesopotamian society showed clear class stratification, reflecting greater complexity in governance, religion, and economic life. City-states, each centered around temples dedicated to local deities, demonstrated diverse social roles, particularly influencing the status of women. Notably, the early use of the "shekel" emerged as both currency and a weight measurement, reflecting advanced economic systems.

Jemdet Nasr Period and Sumerian Urbanization

The Jemdet Nasr period (3100–2900 BCE) marked a transitional era characterized by continued urban development in south-central Iraq, with cities like Kish gaining prominence. Sumerian clay tablets from this time, notably those from Jemdet Nasr, represent the oldest clearly Sumerian texts, featuring stylus-written wedge-shaped cuneiform script, a significant evolution from pictographic predecessors.

Cultural Flourishing at Tepe Sialk and Loristan

Tepe Sialk near modern Kashan, Iran, demonstrated early urban structures dating to the early third millennium BCE. Similarly, in Loristan, distinctive and finely crafted painted pottery, some remarkably thin, began to emerge around 3000 BCE, reflecting vibrant regional cultures interconnected by trade and artistic exchange.

This age encapsulates transformative developments in urban life, cultural sophistication, technological innovation, and economic expansion, solidifying crucial foundations for the complex societies that characterized the ancient Middle East.

The country known as Sumer is, by the third millennium the site of at least twelve separate city-states, each comprising a walled city and its surrounding villages and land, and each worshipping its own deity, whose temple is the central structure of the city.

Sippar (present Abu Habba), located twenty miles (thirty-two kilometers) southwest of present Baghdad, Iraq, is probably occupied before 3000.

Given that thousands of cuneiform tablets have been recovered at the site, relatively little is known about the history of Sippar.

As was often the case in Mesopotamia, it was part of a pair of cities, separated by a river.

Sippar was on the east side of the Euphrates, while its sister city, Sippar-Amnanum, was on the west.

While pottery finds indicate that the site of Sippar was in use as early as the Uruk period, substantial occupation occurred only in the Early Dynastic period of the third millennium BCE.

The five "first" cities said to have exercised pre-dynastic kingship are Sippar (Tell Abu Habbah), …