East Europe (909 BCE – 819 CE) Early Iron and Antiquity — Scythian–Sarmatian Steppe, Greek Ports, Balts & Finno-Ugric Forests, and Early Slavs

Geographic and Environmental Context

East Europe includes Belarus, Ukraine, and European Russia west of the Urals (including the forest, forest-steppe, and steppe zones and the Russian republics west of the Urals).

• Anchors: Scythian Pontic steppe (Lower Dnieper–Don), Taurica/Crimea Greek ports (Olbia, Chersonesus, Bosporus), Sarmatian Lower Volga–Don, Balts on the Upper Dvina–Neman, Finno-Ugric Volga–Oka forests, and the forest-steppe of Kyiv–Chernihiv.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

• First-millennium variability; steppe aridity pulses alternated with good pasture years; rivers remained trade arteries.

Societies & Political Developments

• Scythians (7th–3rd c. BCE) dominated Pontic steppe; later Sarmatians (3rd c. BCE–3rd c. CE) advanced from the east.

• Greek colonies flourished along the Black Sea coast, brokering grain, slaves, and crafts.

• Forest zone: Balts consolidated; Finno-Ugric groups (Merya, Muroma, Mari ancestors) sustained fishing–hunting and garden plots.

• Przeworsk–Zarubintsy and later Chernyakhiv cultural spheres in the forest-steppe bridged steppe and Carpathians.

• Gothic and Hunnic incursions (3rd–5th c. CE) reshaped steppe polities; Avars skirted the Carpathians; Khazars(7th–10th c.) organized lower Volga–Don tribute (Saltovo–Mayaki culture).

• Volga Bulgars formed on the middle Volga (7th–10th c.); Early Slavs (Prague–Korchak, Pen’kovka) spread through Dnieper–Bug–Pripet basins (5th–7th c.), foreshadowing Rus’.

Economy & Trade

• Steppe exported horses, hides, slaves; imported Greek wine/oil, metal goods; Greek ports shipped grain from forest-steppe.

• Forest traded furs, wax, honey via Dvina–Volga–Dnieper; Khazar and Bulgar routes taxed Volga traffic to the Caspian.

Technology & Material Culture

• Iron weaponry; saddles and stirrups (late); composite bows; Greek ceramics/coins; hillfort gorodishcha with ramparts; black-burnished and wheel-made wares in late centuries.

Belief & Symbolism

• Sky-god/Tengri and ancestor cults among steppe riders; Greek polytheism then Christianity in ports; Zoroastrian, Jewish, Christian, Muslim minorities under Khazars; forest animisms persisted.

• Kurgan art (animal style), Greek funerary stelae, and forest-zone ritual pits coexisted.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Pastoral nomadism tracked pasture cycles; mixed farming in forest-steppe stabilised grain; river/port networks re-routed trade during wars.

Legacy & Transition

By 819 CE, East Europe was a braided frontier: Scythian–Sarmatian legacies, Greek–Khazar–Bulgar economic lattices, Balto-Finnic forests, and Early Slavs in the Dnieper–Pripet. The political and economic scaffolding for Kyivan Rus’ (emerging in the 9th century) and later medieval polities was in place.

The present Ukraine is inhabited by Cimmerians, Scythians, and Sarmatians during the Iron Age.

Beginning in the sixth century BCE, colonies of Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome and the Byzantine Empire, such as Tyras, Olbia and Chersonesus, are founded on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea.

These colonies thrive well into the sixth century CE.

The Goths stay in the area but come under the sway of the Huns from the 370s CE.

In the seventh century, the territory of eastern Ukraine is the center of Old Great Bulgaria.

Nerva, whose public works are few because his reign is brief, instead completes projects that had been initiated under Flavian rule.

This include extensive repairs to the Roman road system and the expansion of the aqueducts.

The latter program is headed by the former consul Sextus Julius Frontinus, who helps to put an end to abuses.

Frontinus, water commissioner of Rome in 97 and consul in 98, describes, in his treatise De aquis urbis Romae (”Concerning the Waters of the City of Rome”), the city's aqueducts, enumerates the technical and administrative staff responsible for them, and discusses problems of maintenance.

Eastern Southeast Europe (100–243 CE): Stability, Crisis, and Regional Transformation

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Continued Roman Urbanization and Development

Between 100 and 243 CE, Eastern Southeast Europe experienced sustained urban growth under Roman administration. Cities such as Byzantium and Philippopolis (modern-day Plovdiv) thrived as key regional hubs, featuring monumental architecture, forums, temples, water systems, coliseums, and public baths. Urban centers expanded with robust infrastructure, attracting diverse populations and fostering economic and cultural vitality.

Establishment of Roman Provinces

Significant Roman administrative reorganizations occurred, leading to the creation of new provinces, notably Roman Dacia (106 CE), Moesia Inferior, and Thracia. Emperor Trajan organized Dacia following his victory over the Getae, establishing the provincial capital at Ulpia Trajana on the site of Sarmizegetusa. The province attracted colonists from various parts of the Roman Empire, including Gaul, Spain, and Syria, contributing to regional stability and economic integration.

Increasing Migration and Border Pressures

This era witnessed increasing pressures from migrating groups along the empire's northern borders, notably Goths and other Germanic tribes, impacting regional stability. These movements foreshadowed later significant migrations and conflicts, influencing settlement patterns and military strategies.

Economic and Technological Developments

Economic Prosperity and Regional Trade

Economic activities flourished, supported by Roman trade networks, agricultural productivity, and mining industries, notably gold and silver mining in Dacia. The region benefited significantly from its strategic geographic position, facilitating trade connections between Europe, Asia Minor, and the broader Mediterranean.

Technological Continuity and Infrastructure Maintenance

Roman technological innovations supported economic stability, particularly in agricultural efficiency, mining, and infrastructure management. Aqueducts, roads, and ports were actively maintained and expanded, ensuring regional prosperity and connectivity. The introduction of viticulture in regions like Dalmatia and the development of iron metallurgy with iron plowshares and other agricultural implements enhanced productivity.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Cultural Continuity and Artistic Expression

Artistic traditions reflected sustained cultural synthesis, blending Roman, Greek, and indigenous Thracian elements. Public monuments, statues, mosaics, frescoes, and ceremonial artifacts decorated urban spaces, demonstrating cultural pride and regional identity.

Literary and Intellectual Growth

Urban centers became hubs of intellectual and literary activities, reflecting Roman educational standards and Greek philosophical traditions. Schools, libraries, and theaters fostered cultural vitality, intellectual exchanges, and literary production, promoting widespread literacy and the gradual adoption of Latin in daily and administrative life.

Social and Religious Developments

Provincial Administration and Social Integration

Roman governance structures integrated local elites into imperial administration, strengthening societal coherence. Roman citizenship expanded, assimilating indigenous populations into Roman social and political frameworks. Notably, the Roman army recruited natives from conquered regions, and five Illyrian-born individuals rose through military ranks to become emperors.

Religious Diversity and Emergence of Christianity

Religious diversity characterized the region, with traditional Roman, Greek, and local religious practices coexisting. The mystic cult of Mithras, introduced by Roman legionnaires from Persia, gained popularity alongside existing local beliefs. Christianity also spread notably throughout Eastern Southeast Europe, establishing early communities and becoming increasingly influential in urban and provincial areas.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 100 to 243 CE was marked by urbanization, economic prosperity, and increasing regional pressures from migrations. The establishment of Roman Dacia and other provinces significantly impacted local societies, economy, and culture. The Roman influence decisively shaped the evolution of indigenous populations such as the Getae, resulting in a distinct Dacian ethnic group as Roman colonists intermingled with local and Greek coastal populations. These developments laid foundations for future transformations, particularly the rise of Christianity and increasing border challenges, profoundly influencing regional historical trajectories.

The Marcomannic Wars, a series of wars lasting over a dozen years beginning about 166, pit the Roman Empire against, principally, the Germanic Marcomanni and Quadi and the Sarmatian Iazyges; related conflicts occur with several other barbarian peoples along both sides of the whole length of the River Danube, the Roman empire's northeastern European border.

The Early Movements of the Great Migrations and Germanic Pressure on Rome (3rd Century CE)

During the 3rd century CE, the first major movements of the Great Migrations began, as the Goths migrated westward, displacing and pressuring Germanic tribes in Central and Eastern Europe. This triggered a chain reaction, forcing various tribes and nomadic groups to move toward the Roman Empire, launching raids along Rome’s northern borders.

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1. The Gothic Migrations and Their Impact

• The Goths, originally from Scandinavia and the Baltic region, began moving westward and southward into the Pontic Steppe and Central Europe.
• This displaced other Germanic tribes, pushing them toward Roman frontiers in search of new lands and resources.
• The Gothic advance weakened Roman border defenses, forcing Rome to increase military expenditures and fortify key regions.

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2. Raids into Gaul and Across the Danube

• Germanic tribes, particularly the Franks, Alamanni, and Vandals, intensified raids into Gaul, exploiting Rome’s internal instability during the Crisis of the Third Century (235–284 CE).
• The Goths, Gepids, and other steppe tribes crossed the Danube, raiding deep into Moesia, Thrace, and even Greece.
• These incursions strained Rome’s resources, forcing emperors to mobilize defensive campaigns and recruit more Germanic auxiliaries into the Roman army.

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3. The Broader Impact on the Roman Empire

• The increased pressure on Rome’s frontiers exposed the empire’s vulnerability, requiring more permanent military garrisons along the Rhine and Danube.
• The instability of the Roman economy made it harder to fund border defenses, leading to occasional provincial collapses.
• The pattern of Germanic and steppe incursions foreshadowed the larger-scale invasions of the 4th and 5th centuries, culminating in the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

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Conclusion: The Prelude to the Great Migration Period

The early movements of Germanic tribes and Gothic incursions in the 3rd century CE set the stage for the full-scale Great Migrations of the 4th and 5th centuries. These pressures on Rome’s northern borders contributed to the empire’s long-term decline, demonstrating the shifting balance of power between Rome and the Germanic world.

The Goths, according to one theory, maintained contact with southern Sweden during their migration.

Chernyakhov settlements tend to cluster in open ground in river valleys.

The houses include sunken-floored dwellings, surface dwellings, and stall-houses.

The largest known settlement (Budesty-Budești) is thirty-five hectares. (Heather, Peter; Matthews, John (1991), The Goths in the Fourth Century, Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, pp. 52–4.)

Chernyakhov cemeteries feature both cremation and inhumation burials; among the latter the head is to the north.

Some graves were left empty.

Grave goods often include pottery, bone combs, and iron tools, but almost never weapons.

Beginning in the middle second century, the Wielbark culture had shifted to the southeast, towards the Black Sea.

The part of the Wielbark culture that moved is the oldest portion, located west of the Vistula and still practicing Scandinavian burial traditions.

In Ukraine, they had installed themselves as the rulers of the local Zarubintsy culture, forming the new Chernyakhov Culture, which flourishes between about 200 to about 400.

The arrival of Germanic-speaking invaders along the coast of the Black Sea is generally explained as a gradual migration of the Goths from what is now Poland to Ukraine, reflecting the tradition of Jordanes and old songs.

The Goths—Germans coming from what is now Sweden—will be followed by the Vandals, the Burgundians, and the Gepidae.

The aftereffect of their march to the southeast, toward the Black Sea, had been to push the Marcomanni, the Quadi, and the Sarmatians onto the Roman limes in Marcus Aurelius' time.

Their presence is brusquely revealed to the civilized Greco-Roman world when they attack the Greek towns on the Black Sea about 238.

The Goths, in the first attested incursion into Thrace, are mentioned as Boranoi by Zosimus, writing at the turn of the sixth century, and as Boradoi by Gregory Thaumaturgus.

The first incursion of the Roman Empire that can be attributed to Goths is the sack of Histria in 238.

The town suffers serious destruction from which it will never recover.

The main theory is that it is destroyed by Gothic invasion; another theory presumes that the town was destroyed in an earthquake.

Pupienus, having received the news on his march that Maximinus has been assassinated by his own troops, returns to Rome to celebrate a joint triumph with Balbinus and Gordian.

Balbinus, fearing his colleague intends to make himself sole ruler, quarrels with him.

Shortly afterwards, when both emperors are on the point of leaving the city on an expedition—Pupienus against the Persians and Balbinus against the Goths—the praetorians, who have always resented the appointment of the senatorial emperors and cherish the memory of the soldier-emperor Maximinus, take advantage of the dispute to kidnap both emperors.

When most of the people are at the Capitoline games, they force their way into the palace, drag Balbinus and Pupienus through the streets, and, as they try to escape from the German guards, put their captives to death, declaring Gordian III Maximinus' successor in August 238.

The thirteen-year-old emperor's government is directed first by his mother (and later by Timesitheus).