Hungary, Royal

Moravia has accepted the hereditary right of the Austrian Habsburg to rule it and thus escapes the intense struggle between native estates and the Habsburg monarchy that is to characterize Bohemian history.

The Moravians have a poorly developed historical or national consciousness, make few demands on the Habsburgs, and are permitted to live in tranquillity.

Late in the eighteenth century, the Margravate of Moravia will be abolished and merged with Austrian Silesia.

The Bohemian Kingdom, in contrast to Moravia, has entrenched estates that are ready to defend what they considered their rights and liberties.

Because the Habsburgs pursue a policy of centralization, conflict is inevitable.

The conflict is further complicated by ethnic and religious issues and will subsequently be seen by some as a struggle for the preservation of Czech institutions and the Czech nation.

Habsburg rule brings two centuries of conflict between the Bohemian estates and the monarchy.

As a result of this struggle, the Czechs lose a major portion of their native aristocracy, their particular form of religion, and even the widespread use of the Czech language.

The Habsburg policy of centralization begins with its first ruler, King Ferdinand (1526-64).

His efforts to eliminate the influence of the Bohemian estates are met with stubborn resistance, but the Bohemian estates are themselves divided, primarily on religious lines.

By several adroit political maneuvers, Ferdinand is able to establish hereditary succession to the Bohemian crown for the Habsburgs.

The estates' inability to establish the principle of electing or even confirming a monarch makes their position considerably weaker.

The Bohemian Kingdom, the Margravate of Moravia, and Slovakia are all under Habsburg rule, but they follow different paths of development.

The defeat at Mohacs in 1526 had meant that most of Hungary proper was taken by the Turks; until Hungary's reconquest by the Habsburgs in the second half of the seventeenth century, Slovakia becomes the center of Hungarian political, cultural, and economic life.

The Habsburg kings of Hungary are crowned in Bratislava, the present-day capital of Slovakia, and the Hungarian estates meet here.

Slovakia's importance in Hungarian life proves of no benefit, however, to the Slovaks.

In essence, the Hungarian political nation consists of an association of estates (primarily the nobility).

Because Slovaks are primarily serfs, they are not considered members of a political nation and have no influence on politics in their own land.

The Slovak peasant has only to perform duties: work for a landlord, pay taxes, and provide recruits for military service.

Even under such hostile conditions, there are a few positive developments.

The Protestant Reformation brings to Slovakia literature written in Czech, and Czech replaces Latin as the literary language of a small, educated Slovak elite, but on the whole, the Slovaks will languish for centuries in a state of political, economic, and cultural deprivation.

Upon the death of the Hussite king, the Bohemian estates elect a Polish prince, Vladislav II, as king.

In 1490 Vladislav also becomes king of Hungary, and the Polish Jagellonian line rules both Bohemia and Hungary.

The Jagellonians govern Bohemia as absentee monarchs; their influence in the kingdom is minimal, and effective government falls to the regional nobility.

Czech Catholics accepts the Compact of Basel in 1485 and are reconciled with the Utraquists.

Vladislav's son, King Louis, is decisively defeated by the Ottomans at Mohacs in 1526 and subsequently dies.

As a result, the Turks conquer part of the Kingdom of Hungary; the rest (including Slovakia) comes under Habsburg rule.

The Bohemian estates elect Archduke Ferdinand, younger brother of Emperor Charles V, to succeed Louis as king of Bohemia.

Thus begins almost three centuries of Habsburg rule for both Bohemia and Slovakia.

The Bohemian Kingdom had in several instances had the possibility of becoming a Czech national monarchy.

The failure to establish a native dynasty, however, had prevented such an outcome and left the fate of the Bohemian Kingdom to dynastic politics and foreign rulers.

Although the Bohemian Kingdom evolves neither into a national monarchy nor into a Czech nation-state, the memory of it serves as a source of inspiration and pride for modern Czech nationalists.

Ferdinand, in addition to the lands he receives from his brother, also increases his territorial reach by marrying into the Jagiellon family, the royal family of Hungary and Bohemia.

When his brother-in-law, King Louis, dies fighting the Turks at the Battle of Mohacs in 1526, Ferdinand claims the right of succession.

Although the diets representing the nobility of Bohemia (and its dependencies of Moravia and Silesia) do not acknowledge Ferdinand's hereditary rights, they formally elect him king of Bohemia.

As king of Bohemia, he also becomes an elector-prince of the Holy Roman Empire.

In Hungary and in the subordinate Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia, however, Ferdinand faces the rival claim of a Hungarian nobleman and the reality of the Turkish conquest of the country.

He is able to assert authority only over the northern and western edges of the country, which becomes known as Royal Hungary.

His Hungarian rival becomes a vassal of the Turks, ruling over Transylvania in eastern Hungary.

The rest of Hungary will become part of the Ottoman Empire in 1603.

Although Ferdinand undertakes various administrative reforms in order to centralize authority and increase his power, no meaningful integration of the Hereditary Lands and the two newly acquired kingdoms occurs.

In contrast to the authority of kings of Western Europe, where feudal structures are already in decline, Ferdinand's authority continues to rest on the consent of the nobles as expressed in the local diets, which successfully resist administrative centralization.

East Central Europe (1516–1527 CE): Ottoman Conquest of Hungary, End of the Jagiellonians, and Rise of Habsburg Dominance

Between 1516 and 1527 CE, East Central Europe experienced dramatic geopolitical changes marked by the collapse of Jagiellonian power in Hungary and Bohemia, the devastating Battle of Mohács (1526), and the decisive expansion of Habsburg authority into the region. This era witnessed the irreversible transformation of Hungary’s medieval kingdom, significant shifts in regional alliances, and increasing Ottoman dominance, profoundly reshaping East Central Europe's political landscape.

Political and Military Developments

End of Jagiellonian Rule and the Battle of Mohács (1526)

• Following the death of Vladislaus II Jagiellon in 1516, his young son Louis II ascended the thrones of Hungary and Bohemia, inheriting weakened royal authority and an unstable kingdom.

• On 29 August 1526, Hungarian forces suffered catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Mohács against Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520–1566). Louis II was killed, leading to Hungary's political fragmentation and subsequent partition.

Fragmentation of Hungary and Ottoman Occupation

• The aftermath of Mohács shattered the medieval Kingdom of Hungary, partitioning it into three parts:

  • Royal Hungary under Habsburg control in the north and west (including parts of modern Slovakia, western Hungary, and Croatia).

  • Ottoman Hungary (central and southern regions), directly administered by the Ottomans.

  • Principality of Transylvania in the east, a semi-autonomous entity under Ottoman suzerainty, governed by Hungarian princes.

• These divisions significantly reshaped Hungary’s political and cultural identity for centuries.

Rise of Habsburg Dominance in Bohemia and Hungary

• Following Mohács, Ferdinand I of Habsburg (brother of Emperor Charles V and husband of Louis II's sister, Anne Jagiellon) asserted dynastic claims, being crowned King of Bohemia in 1526, and subsequently as King of Hungary in 1527 at Székesfehérvár.

• Ferdinand’s accession marked a fundamental shift toward long-term Habsburg rule, effectively ending Jagiellonian influence in these key Central European kingdoms.

Polish-Lithuanian Stability under Sigismund I

• Poland-Lithuania, ruled by Sigismund I the Old (1506–1548), maintained relative stability, successfully repelling external threats, notably from Muscovy and Crimean Tatars, reinforcing Poland’s eastern borders.

Economic and Technological Developments

Economic Disruption and Regional Reorientation

• Hungary’s partition severely disrupted traditional economic networks, prompting substantial commercial realignments. Trade shifted northward toward Bohemia, Poland-Lithuania, and the Habsburg lands, notably benefiting Vienna, Prague, Kraków, and the northern Hanseatic cities (Gdańsk, Toruń, Elbląg).

• The collapse of Hungarian control of key southern trade routes to the Balkans and Mediterranean significantly reshaped regional commerce, redirecting flows through safer northern routes.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Impact of Ottoman Occupation on Hungarian Culture

• Ottoman occupation deeply impacted Hungarian culture, introducing Islamic and Ottoman architectural and artistic styles in occupied regions, notably in southern Hungarian towns and fortresses.

• Conversely, regions under Habsburg influence experienced increased cultural alignment with Renaissance Vienna, fostering intensified artistic and intellectual exchanges.

Bohemian and Polish Renaissance Flourishing

• Bohemia under Ferdinand I and Poland under Sigismund I continued experiencing Renaissance cultural prosperity. Prague and Kraków emerged as prominent cultural centers, promoting humanist scholarship, architectural innovation, and literary production, strongly influenced by Italian and German Renaissance trends.

Settlement and Urban Development

Urban Fortification and Military Infrastructure

• Cities throughout East Central Europe, particularly along new Ottoman borders (e.g., Vienna, Győr, Esztergom), significantly reinforced defensive infrastructure, reflecting heightened military threats.

• Kraków, Prague, and major Hanseatic cities continued prospering economically and expanding urban fortifications to secure trade routes against disruptions and regional instability.

Social and Religious Developments

Increased Noble Autonomy and Feudal Fragmentation

• The collapse of centralized Hungarian royal authority accelerated noble autonomy, particularly in Ottoman Hungary and Transylvania. Local magnates increasingly dominated regional governance, fostering decentralized and feudalized political structures.

• Polish and Bohemian aristocratic diets maintained significant influence, balancing noble privileges against royal authority, reflecting stable yet decentralized governance patterns.

Religious Resilience and Ecclesiastical Influence

• The Catholic Church faced significant challenges in Ottoman-occupied regions but maintained strong influence in Habsburg-controlled Bohemia and Royal Hungary, actively supporting religious education, monastic patronage, and ecclesiastical arts.

• Emerging Protestant Reformation ideas began influencing East Central Europe, notably among urban elites and nobility in Bohemia, Poland, and Royal Hungary, foreshadowing future religious conflicts.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era 1516–1527 CE marked a watershed moment in East Central Europe's historical trajectory, defined by Hungary's devastating defeat at Mohács and the subsequent rise of Habsburg rule. The partition of Hungary profoundly transformed regional geopolitics, embedding long-lasting divisions that endured for centuries. Increased Ottoman threats reshaped military priorities and economic networks, while the Jagiellonian dynasty’s collapse fundamentally realigned political alliances. Concurrently, Polish and Bohemian cultural flourishing continued, reinforcing distinct national identities and intellectual traditions. These complex transformations critically shaped East Central Europe's subsequent development, decisively influencing regional dynamics into the early modern era.

Greedy nobles and an ill-planned crusade spark a widespread peasant revolt in Hungary and Transylvania in 1514.

Well-armed peasants under György Dózsa sack estates across the country.

Despite strength of numbers, however, the peasants are disorganized and suffer a decisive defeat at Timisoara.

Dózsa and the other rebel leaders are tortured and executed.

After the revolt, the Hungarian nobles enact laws that condemn the serfs to eternal bondage and increase their work obligations.

With the serfs and nobles deeply alienated from each other and jealous magnates challenging the king's power, Hungary is vulnerable to outside aggression.

The Ottomans storm Belgrade in 1521, rout a feeble Hungarian army at Mohacs in 1526, and will conquer Buda in 1541.

They install a pasha to rule over central Hungary; Transylvania becomes an autonomous principality under Ottoman suzerainty; and the Habsburgs assume control over fragments of northern and western Hungary.

Charles is by the beginning of 1526 faced with demands from Venice and the Pope to restore Francesco II Sforza to the throne of the Duchy of Milan, and has become anxious to achieve a settlement with the French before another war began.

Francis, having argued to retain Burgundy without result, is prepared to surrender it to achieve his own release.

On January 14, 1526, Charles and Francis agree to the Treaty of Madrid, by which the French king renounces all his claims in Italy, Flanders, and Artois, surrenders Burgundy to Charles, agrees to send two of his sons to be hostages at the Spanish court, and promises to marry Charles' sister Eleanor and to restore to Bourbon the territories that had been seized from him.

Francis, who holds the title of "Most Christian King", also agrees to persuade Henry to relinquish the throne of Navarre in favor of Charles "in order to uproot the errors of the Lutheran sect and the rest of condemned sects".

Francis I Released from Captivity (March 1526)

On March 6, 1526, King Francis I is finally released from captivity following the disastrous defeat at the Battle of Pavia(February 1525). Escorted northward by the Imperial envoy, Charles de Lannoy, Francis makes his way toward the French border. On March 18, he crosses the Bidasoa River into Fuenterrabia (Hondarribia), reentering French territory for the first time since his imprisonment.

The terms of his release under the Treaty of Madrid (January 1526) have imposed harsh conditions, including relinquishing claims to territories in Italy and Burgundy and the surrendering of his two young sons, the Dauphin Francisand Prince Henry, as hostages to guarantee compliance. Simultaneously with the king’s return, the princes, escorted by their grandmother and regent, Louise of Savoy, and the French commander Odet de Foix, Viscount of Lautrec, journey southward, crossing into Spain at Bayonne, beginning their captivity as hostages at the Spanish court.

The symbolic exchange underscores the deep personal and political cost of Francis’s capture and release, highlighting both his weakened diplomatic position and France’s determination to avoid the harshest consequences of defeat.

Long-term Consequences and Significance

Francis’s forced concessions to Charles V—including the handing over of his sons—will profoundly shape French foreign policy, fostering resentment and fueling Francis’s future attempts to overturn the humiliating conditions. His immediate rejection of the terms of the treaty upon his return sets the stage for renewed conflict, continued rivalry between France and the Habsburg Empire, and ultimately, the formation of alliances—including with the Ottoman Empire—designed to counterbalance Habsburg supremacy in Europe.