Khazar Khaganate
State | Defunct
650 CE to 820 CE
The Khazars are a semi-nomadic Turkic people who establish one of the largest polities of medieval Eurasia, with the capital of Atil and territory comprising much of modern-day European Russia, western Kazakhstan, eastern Ukraine, Azerbaijan, large portions of the northern Caucasus (Circassia, Dagestan), parts of Georgia, the Crimea, and northeastern Turkey.
Khazar inscriptions are mainly in an eastern Turkish runic script.
Khazar Correspondence is one of the very few primary sources on history of Khazars.A successor state of the Western Turks, Khazar Khaganate (simply Khazaria) is a polyethnic-multifaith state with a population of Turkic, Uralic, Slavic, and Paleo-Caucasian peoples.
Khazaria is the first feudal state to be established in Eastern Europe.
Khazaria is one of the major arteries of commerce between northern Europe and southwestern Asia, as well as a connection to the Silk Road.
The name "Khazar" is found in numerous languages and seems to be tied to a Turkic verb form meaning "wandering" (Modern Turkish: Gezer).
Because of their jurisdiction over the area in the past, Turkic people today still call the Caspian Sea the Khazar Sea.
Pax Khazarica is a term used by historians to refer to the period during which the Khazaria dominate the Pontic steppe and the Caucasus Mountains.The period when the Khazars have their greatest power corresponds with the European Dark Ages, and takes place at a very important time for the creation of capitalism.
Its strategic importance between China on one side and the Middle East and Europe on the other, temporarily gives all of Eurasia incredible riches.
In medieval (9th-11th centuries) Byzantine sources written in Greek, Khazaria is referred to as Eastern Tourkia (Τουρκία), whereas the Principality of Hungary is referred to as Western Tourkia.
Khazaria has an ongoing entente with Byzantium.
Serving their partner in wars against the Abbasid Caliphate, Khazars aid the Byzantine emperor Heraclius (reigned 610–641) by sending an army of 40,000 soldiers[14] in their campaign against the Persians in the Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628.
In 775, Leo (son of Tzitzak) is crowned as the sole emperor of the Roman Empire.
Sarkel (a Turkish word meaning White Fortress) is built in the 830s by a joint team of Greek and Khazar architects to protect the north-western border of the Khazar state.
The chief engineer during the construction of Sarkel is Petronas Kamateros, who later becomes the governor of Cherson.Khazars play a role in the balance of powers and destiny of world civilization.
After Kubrat's Great Bulgaria is destroyed by the Khazars, some of the Bulgars flee to the west and found a new Bulgar state (present day Bulgaria) near the Danubian Plain, under the command of Khan Asparukh.
The majority of the Bulgars flee to the north of the Volga River region and establish Volga Bulgaria (present day Chuvashia).
The eldest son of Kubrat, Bat-Bayan Bezmer allies his Kara-Bulgars (Black Bulgars) with the Khazars, and becomes the forefather of the Hungarian Royal House of Árpád via Almysh.
Kara-Bulgars are descendent of the tribes from Attila's right wing, the Kutrigurs.By serving as a buffer state between Christians and Muslims, the Khazars help to block the western spread of Islam in Europe.
The Khazars for years venture southward, raiding the Muslim countries south of the Caucasus.
Islamic armies conquered part of Persia, Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Armenia, and what is now the modern-day post-Soviet Republic of Azerbaijan and surround the Byzantine heartland (present-day Turkey) in a pincer movement that extends from the Mediterranean to the Caucasus and the southern shores of the Caspian.
This is the beginning of the long series of Khazar-Arab Wars, which largely end with Arab defeats, with a fairly well-known commander, Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rabiah, perishing in one instance.
The Arab armies' inability to traverse the Caucasus plays a role in preventing them from succeeding in their siege of the Byzantine capital, Constantinople.
Coupled with the military barrier presented by the Khazars themselves, this protects Europe from more direct and intensive assaults by the forces of Islam.After fighting the Arabs to a standstill in the North Caucasus, Khazars become increasingly interested in replacing their Tengriism with a state religion that will give them equal religious standing with their Abrahamic neighbors.
During the 8th century, the Khazar royalty and much of the aristocracy converts to Judaism.
Yitzhak ha-Sangari is the name of the rabbi who converts the Khazars to Judaism according to Jewish sources.Khazars are judged according to Tōra (orders of the Khagan; coming from the root Tōr meaning customs; unwritten law of people in Old Turkic) (Modern Turkish: Töre), while the other tribes are judged according to their own laws.
Being a surprisingly tolerant and pluralistic society, even its army incorporates Jews, Christians, Muslims and Pagans at a time when religious warfare is the order of the day around the Mediterranean and in Western Europe.
By welcoming educated and worldly Jews from both Christian Europe and the Islamic Middle East, Khazars rapidly absorb many of the arts and technologies of civilization.
As a direct result of this cultural infusion, they become one of the very few Asian steppe tribal societies that successfully makes the transition from nomad to urbanite.
Settling in their newly created towns and cities between the Caspian Sea and the Crimean Peninsula on the Black Sea, they become literate and multi-lingual agriculturalists, manufacturers and international traders.
Between 965 and 969, Khazar sovereignty was broken by Kievan Rus.
Sviatoslav I of Kiev defeated them in 965 by conquering the Khazar fortress of Sarkel.
Two years later, Sviatoslav conquered Atil, after which he campaigned in the Balkans.
Medieval Ruthenian epic poems mention Ruthenian warriors fighting the Jewish Giant (Богатырь Жидовин).
[23] The Rus and the Hungarians both adopted the dual-kingship system of the Khazars (The kingship is divided between the khagan and the Bek.
The Khagan was purely a spiritual ruler or figurehead with limited powers, while the Bek was responsible for administration and military affairs).
The Rus princes even borrowed Turkic words like Khagan and Bogatyr.
Many artifacts from the Khazars, exhibiting their artistic and industrial talents, have survived to the present da
Worlds
The Great Crossroads
View →Related Events
Showing 10 events out of 60 total
East Europe (909 BCE – 819 CE) Early Iron and Antiquity — Scythian–Sarmatian Steppe, Greek Ports, Balts & Finno-Ugric Forests, and Early Slavs
Geographic and Environmental Context
East Europe includes Belarus, Ukraine, and European Russia west of the Urals (including the forest, forest-steppe, and steppe zones and the Russian republics west of the Urals).
-
Anchors: Scythian Pontic steppe (Lower Dnieper–Don), Taurica/Crimea Greek ports (Olbia, Chersonesus, Bosporus), Sarmatian Lower Volga–Don, Balts on the Upper Dvina–Neman, Finno-Ugric Volga–Oka forests, and the forest-steppe of Kyiv–Chernihiv.
Climate & Environmental Shifts
-
First-millennium variability; steppe aridity pulses alternated with good pasture years; rivers remained trade arteries.
Societies & Political Developments
-
Scythians (7th–3rd c. BCE) dominated Pontic steppe; later Sarmatians (3rd c. BCE–3rd c. CE) advanced from the east.
-
Greek colonies flourished along the Black Sea coast, brokering grain, slaves, and crafts.
-
Forest zone: Balts consolidated; Finno-Ugric groups (Merya, Muroma, Mari ancestors) sustained fishing–hunting and garden plots.
-
Przeworsk–Zarubintsy and later Chernyakhiv cultural spheres in the forest-steppe bridged steppe and Carpathians.
-
Gothic and Hunnic incursions (3rd–5th c. CE) reshaped steppe polities; Avars skirted the Carpathians; Khazars(7th–10th c.) organized lower Volga–Don tribute (Saltovo–Mayaki culture).
-
Volga Bulgars formed on the middle Volga (7th–10th c.); Early Slavs (Prague–Korchak, Pen’kovka) spread through Dnieper–Bug–Pripet basins (5th–7th c.), foreshadowing Rus’.
Economy & Trade
-
Steppe exported horses, hides, slaves; imported Greek wine/oil, metal goods; Greek ports shipped grain from forest-steppe.
-
Forest traded furs, wax, honey via Dvina–Volga–Dnieper; Khazar and Bulgar routes taxed Volga traffic to the Caspian.
Technology & Material Culture
-
Iron weaponry; saddles and stirrups (late); composite bows; Greek ceramics/coins; hillfort gorodishcha with ramparts; black-burnished and wheel-made wares in late centuries.
Belief & Symbolism
-
Sky-god/Tengri and ancestor cults among steppe riders; Greek polytheism then Christianity in ports; Zoroastrian, Jewish, Christian, Muslim minorities under Khazars; forest animisms persisted.
-
Kurgan art (animal style), Greek funerary stelae, and forest-zone ritual pits coexisted.
Environmental Adaptation & Resilience
-
Pastoral nomadism tracked pasture cycles; mixed farming in forest-steppe stabilised grain; river/port networks re-routed trade during wars.
Legacy & Transition
By 819 CE, East Europe was a braided frontier: Scythian–Sarmatian legacies, Greek–Khazar–Bulgar economic lattices, Balto-Finnic forests, and Early Slavs in the Dnieper–Pripet. The political and economic scaffolding for Kyivan Rus’ (emerging in the 9th century) and later medieval polities was in place.
Balanjar, a city located in the North Caucasus region, between the cities of Derbent and Samandar, probably on the lower Sulak River, flourishes from the seventh to the tenth centuries CE.
The legendary founder of Balanjar, according to the Arab chroniclers Ibn al-Faqih and Abu al-Fida, was named Balanjar ibn Japheth.
Balanjar was a capital of the Baranjar state in the 630s.
Some scholars speculate that the name derives from the Turkic root "Bala" or "Great", and the clan-name "Endzhar".
They are first mentioned in Arab chronicles of the seventh century.
They were supposedly settled in the northern Caucasus Mountains in the 370s CE, having come to Europe with the nomadic Huns.
From the second half of the sixth century, they were subjected to the Göktürk Khaganate.
After the collapse of the Göktürk power in the 630s, they formed a state centered on the town of Balanjar on the lower Terek and Sulak rivers in Daghestan and along the western shore of the Caspian Sea.
Their independence was short-lived, however, and by the end of the 630s they were incorporated into the Bulgar Khaganate and later the Khazar Khanate.
The Khazars establish a major commercial empire covering the southeastern section of modern European Russia.
With the rest of the Baranjar domains, the city becomes part of the Khazar Khaganate around 650; Balanjar will serve as the capital of Khazaria until the early 720s.
The Khazars, whose Khaganate extends from the Dnieper to the Caspian Sea, and northward to the headwaters of the Volga, have established the city of Balanjar as their capital.
The Khazars and the Arabs had come into conflict as a result of the first phase of Muslim expansion: by 640 the Arabs had reached Armenia, and in 642, they had launched their first raid across the Caucasus under Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rabiah.
In 645/646, the Arabs had defeated an imperial army in Armenia, reinforced with Khazar and Alan contingents.
This is followed by an attempt in 651–652 to advance onto the Khazar capital, Balanjar, but the Arabs are heavily defeated in battle before the city, resulting in the death of Abd ar-Rahman's brother Salman and four thousand Muslim troops.
The rapidly expanding empire of the Arabs has penetrated as far northward as the northern Caucasus by the middle of the seventh century, and the Khazars engage in the first of a series of wars with the Arab empire.
The Arabs initially force the Khazars to abandon Derbent in 661.
Bulgar khan Batbayan, warring with his relative Kotrag in 668, is temporarily driven into the Crimea.
Kotrag’s Khazars attack and eventually take the steppes between Don and the Urals, according to the treaty of 668 between Batbayan and the Khazar Khagan (Kaban) under which Batbayan and his sister Huba are taken prisoners.
Western Bulgar warriors will later adopt the practice of wearing Martenitsas—a small piece of adornment, made of white and red yarn and usually in the form of two dolls, a male and a female—in battle to remind them of the sacrifice of their ancestral relatives Batbayan and Huba.
Batbayan's Bulgars are an essential part of the ethnogenesis of the contemporary Balkars and probably in some scale of the Volga Tatars and Crimean Tatars, though the ethnogenesis of the eponymous inhabitants of modern Bulgarian is probably very little influenced by Batbayan's Bulgars.
When Great Bulgaria disintegrates under Khazar attack in 668, Batbayan's brothers part ways, leading their people to seek a more secure home in other lands.
East Europe (676–819 CE): Slavic Consolidation and the Rise of New Polities
Political and Military Developments
Consolidation of Slavic Tribes
Between 676 and 819 CE, East Europe witnessed significant consolidation among the Slavic tribes, resulting in the establishment of powerful tribal confederations and early states. Communities increasingly united under regional leadership, fostering the formation of cohesive political entities.
Rise of the Khazar Khaganate
The Khazar Khaganate, emerging from the steppes of Central Asia, extended its influence into parts of East Europe, particularly in areas near the Volga and Don rivers. This powerful entity exerted considerable political and military pressure on neighboring Slavic and nomadic groups, shaping regional power dynamics.
Formation of Early Rus' Polities
Early forms of Rus' polities began to emerge, characterized by loosely structured federations of Slavic and Varangian (Norse) groups. These polities marked the beginning of organized political and social structures, laying foundations for future statehood.
Economic and Technological Developments
Expansion and Stabilization of Trade Routes
East Europe became a central hub of extensive trade networks linking the Byzantine Empire, Western Europe, Scandinavia, and the Islamic world. Rivers like the Dnieper and Volga served as critical arteries for commerce, facilitating robust economic exchange.
Advancements in Agricultural and Military Technologies
Improvements in agricultural techniques and the introduction of new crops led to increased productivity and population growth among Slavic settlements. Military technology also advanced, influenced by interactions with the Khazars, Byzantines, and Norse traders.
Cultural and Artistic Developments
Maturation of Slavic Artistic Expression
Slavic artistic traditions matured significantly, reflected in distinctive pottery styles, jewelry, and metalwork. Cultural exchanges with Byzantium, the Khazar Khaganate, and the Norse further enriched artistic expressions, incorporating diverse influences.
Cultural Interactions and Synthesis
This period saw intensified interactions between Slavic, Norse, Khazar, and Byzantine cultures. These interactions produced a vibrant cultural synthesis evident in material culture, art, architecture, and religious practices.
Settlement Patterns and Urban Development
Urbanization and Growth of Trade Centers
Slavic settlements expanded and urbanized substantially, particularly along key trade routes and river systems. Early urban centers, such as Kiev and Novgorod, began to thrive, becoming significant political, economic, and cultural hubs.
Fortification and Defensive Strategies
Increasing political and military pressures led to more extensive fortifications and defensive planning within settlements. The strategic development of fortified towns reflected heightened security concerns and improved socio-political organization.
Social and Religious Developments
Emergence of Aristocratic Leadership
Societal structures became more hierarchical, with aristocratic leaders emerging prominently. Leadership was increasingly determined by military capabilities, control over trade routes, and alliances with neighboring powers.
Religious Diversification and Early Christian Influence
East Europe's religious landscape diversified further, featuring traditional Slavic paganism alongside significant influences from Byzantine Christianity, Judaism (notably within the Khazar Khaganate), and Norse pagan practices. Early forms of Christianity began to penetrate Slavic regions, setting the stage for broader religious shifts.
Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance
The era from 676 to 819 CE was instrumental in shaping East Europe's early medieval identity. The consolidation of Slavic tribes, emergence of powerful regional entities, and intensive cultural interactions laid crucial groundwork for subsequent political, economic, and cultural developments in the region.
The commercial empire of the Turkic Khazars, centered in the southeastern section of modern European Russia, adopts Judaism in about 740 and continues its alliance with Constantinople against the Muslim Arabs.
The rapid expansion of Islam from the Middle East to Spain in the seventh and eighth centuries brings a significant portion of the Jewish people under Muslim rule.
Jews, tolerated by Muslims as People of the Book, with a common ancestor in Abraham, regain religious autonomy and, as long as they pay tribute to the rulers, see to the affairs of their communities.
The Fragmentation of the Arab Caliphate and the Rise of Independent Muslim States
Throughout this period, the Arab Caliphate, predominantly ruled by the Umayyad dynasty, is fractured by a series of civil wars, one of which leads to the split of Islam into three major branches:
- Sunnites,
- Kharijites, and
- Shi'ites.
This internal strife ultimately shatters unified Islamic rule. In 750 CE, the Abbasids overthrow the Umayyads, seizing control of the Caliphate. However, a cadet branch of the Umayyads escapes to Muslim Spain, where they establish the Emirate of Córdoba, marking the beginning of an independent Islamic state in Al-Andalus.
Elsewhere, other independent Muslim states emerge, including:
- Idrisid Morocco, and
- Aghlabid Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia, eastern Algeria, and western Libya).
These developments mark the transition from a unified Arab Empire to a diverse Islamic world, ruled by multiple, competing dynasties.
In 711 CE, Muslim Arab and Berber forces launch an invasion of Visigothic Spain from North Africa, swiftly defeating the Visigothic kingdom. Within a few years, they conquer nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula, except for the northernmost regions, where Christian resistance endures.
Their expansion also extends into Septimania in southern Gaul, further consolidating Muslim rule in Western Europeand marking the beginning of Al-Andalus, a new Islamic domain in Iberia.