Northwest Europe (1384–1395 CE): Turmoil, Transition, and Cultural Flourishing

England: Political Turbulence, Chaucer’s Literary Peak, and the Rise of Lollardy

The political instability under Richard II continued as the youthful king's favoritism toward certain nobles increased tensions among the English aristocracy. The period was characterized by ongoing disputes between royal authority and powerful magnates, exacerbated by the death of influential reformer John Wycliffe on December 31, 1384. Wycliffe's theological challenges to ecclesiastical authority left an enduring legacy through the Lollards, who criticized the church's power and wealth. Led by Wycliffe's "poor priests," the Lollards taught from his English translation of the Bible, preaching a nonsacramental Christianity focused on poverty, ethical purity, and personal devotion. Their rapid spread attracted support from Oxford scholars, powerful nobles, merchants, and the common people, further intensifying religious and social debates.

During these turbulent times, Geoffrey Chaucer, England’s preeminent literary figure, significantly advanced his literary contributions. By 1385, Chaucer had embarked on composing "Troilus and Criseyde," considered among his greatest poetic achievements, further enhancing the prestige of English vernacular literature. He also produced "The Legend of Good Women" around 1386, demonstrating his continued creativity and influence.

Scotland: Military Resilience and Stewart Consolidation

Under Robert II, Scotland faced renewed threats from England. The earlier failed invasion known as Burnt Candlemas in early 1356, commanded by King Edward III, had been the last major campaign of the Second War of Scottish Independence. In 1385, Richard II launched another devastating but ultimately unsuccessful invasion, which reinforced Scottish resilience rather than weakening it. This event strengthened national unity and further solidified the legitimacy of the Stewart monarchy, contributing to a period of relative internal stability despite external pressures.

Ireland: Gaelic Autonomy and Norman Decline

In Ireland, Gaelic lordships continued consolidating power and autonomy, significantly diminishing Norman influence outside the Pale. The powerful Gaelic dynasties, notably the O'Neill and O'Brien clans, fortified their territories, reinforcing traditional Gaelic law and culture and further distancing Ireland from Anglo-Norman dominance.

Denmark and Norway: Toward Dynastic Union

Following the reign of Valdemar IV, Denmark experienced ongoing political uncertainty and dynastic struggles. This instability paved the way for future dynastic shifts and greater alignment with Norway. Meanwhile, Norway’s weakened monarchy increasingly aligned itself with Danish interests, anticipating the dynastic union that would soon follow, significantly reshaping Scandinavia’s political landscape.

Iceland: Literary Flourishing Amidst Political Dependency

Despite political subordination to Norway, Iceland maintained a vibrant cultural tradition. The composition of sagas continued to thrive, epitomized by the completion of the influential Njal's Saga around this time, which provided both glorification and critique of Iceland’s Saga Age and the Sturlung Age. These literary works underscored Iceland’s enduring intellectual and cultural vitality, maintaining a distinct national identity.

Social and Economic Shifts

Across Northwest Europe, the demographic and economic aftershocks of the Black Death persisted. The widespread scarcity of labor empowered peasants to seek improved conditions and rights, challenging traditional feudal relationships. The nobility, meanwhile, struggled to adapt to these shifting economic realities, leading to increased tensions and eventual social restructuring.

Architectural Ambition: York Minster

Despite broader societal uncertainties, significant architectural developments continued. The expansion and refinement of York Minster in the ornate Perpendicular Gothic style proceeded, representing cultural resilience and artistic ambition. The ongoing construction symbolized both spiritual devotion and a commitment to cultural expression during a period of political and social upheaval.

Legacy of the Era

By 1395 CE, Northwest Europe had navigated significant political, cultural, and economic transitions. The resilience of its societies during this tumultuous era set the stage for significant future developments in governance, literature, and cultural identity. Notably, the literary and architectural achievements of this period, alongside emerging religious movements such as the Lollards, would profoundly influence subsequent European intellectual and artistic traditions.

John Wycliffe dies at fifty-six on December 31, 1384.

His followers, the Lollards, are highly critical of the power and wealth of the church.

The Lollards’ leaders, Wycliffe's "poor priests," are trained and organized to teach from his English translation of the Bible and to preach a nonsacramental Christianity that minimizes clerical authority and emphasizes poverty, ethical purity, and devotional intensity.

The movement will spread rapidly during the decade following Wycliffe's death, enjoying the support of Oxford scholars, powerful nobles and country gentlemen, wealthy merchants, and masses of common people.

Lollard preachers, who base their teachings on personal faith, divine election, and on the Bible, teach that the commonly held doctrines of transubstantiation, indulgences, and hierarchical church organization are unscriptural.

Northwest Europe (1396–1407 CE): Dynastic Shifts and Cultural Transformations

England: Dynastic Struggles and Internal Rebellions

The political turmoil under Richard II reached a climax in 1399 when the king was overthrown by his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke, who ascended the throne as Henry IV. Richard's deposition underscored the fragility of royal authority, setting the stage for the later Wars of the Roses. Henry IV's early reign was marred by internal unrest, notably the Epiphany Rising of 1400, a failed attempt to restore Richard II, who subsequently died under suspicious circumstances.

Religious dissent continued through the activities of the Lollards, followers of the late John Wycliffe, who died in 1384. Their critical stance on church wealth and clerical authority led to increasing persecution under Henry IV, as the crown sought stability through suppressing heresy. A significant Welsh uprising, known as the Glyndŵr Rising, began in 1400, led by Owain Glyndŵr, representing a major effort by the Welsh to assert independence from English dominance.

Scotland: Internal Conflict and Dynastic Crisis

In Scotland, Robert III faced persistent border conflicts with England and deep internal divisions. His rule saw growing tensions involving his brother, the Duke of Albany. In 1402, Robert's heir, David Stewart, Duke of Rothesay, died under suspicious circumstances while imprisoned by Albany, deepening the kingdom's political uncertainty and dynastic instability.

Ireland: Gaelic Dominance and Anglo-Norman Weakness

Gaelic chieftains such as the powerful O'Neill and O'Brien clans further solidified their control, diminishing English authority confined within The Pale. Gaelic culture and traditional laws dominated, reinforcing regional independence and the enduring legacy of Gaelic autonomy.

Scandinavia: Formation of the Kalmar Union

The political alignment of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden was consolidated under Queen Margaret I, culminating in the establishment of the Kalmar Union in 1397. This union reshaped Scandinavian politics by uniting these kingdoms under a single monarchy, enhancing royal centralization and regional cooperation.

Iceland: Literary Resilience Amid Political Changes

Despite political subordination within the Kalmar Union, Iceland preserved its literary and cultural traditions. Sagas such as Njal's Saga (completed circa 1290, still influential) continued to circulate, emphasizing Iceland’s intellectual resilience and distinct cultural identity.

Social and Economic Shifts: Post-Plague Realignment

The devastating Black Death, which had reached England in 1348, dramatically reshaped Northwest Europe's socio-economic landscape. By 1400, England's population had plummeted from approximately seven million to two million. This demographic collapse allowed peasants greater leverage in negotiating wages and conditions, weakening traditional feudal structures and contributing to long-term economic transformation.

Cultural Innovations: Architecture and Music

Despite political unrest, cultural achievements flourished. The ongoing construction of York Minster, progressing in the Perpendicular Gothic architectural style, symbolized enduring religious devotion and societal resilience. In music, English composers like John Dunstaple and Leonel Power advanced musical composition through innovative mass-ordinary cycles and pioneering use of harmonic intervals (thirds and sixths), employing the cantus firmus technique extensively.

Legacy of the Era

By 1407 CE, Northwest Europe had experienced profound political upheavals, religious tensions, and notable cultural achievements. Dynastic struggles in England and Scotland, Gaelic consolidation in Ireland, the formation of the Kalmar Union, and resilient cultural expressions in architecture and music collectively marked a significant transitional era, shaping regional identities and laying foundations for future developments.

Emperor Manuel (the only Eastern Roman emperor ever to visit England) is welcomed from December 1400 to January 1401 by the king at Eltham Palace, Henry’s favorite royal residence, where a joust is given in his honor.

Henry consults with Parliament frequently, but is sometimes at odds with the members, especially over ecclesiastical matters.

The Middle English translation of the Bible published under the direction of John Wycliffe in the 1380s, known as Wycliffe's Bible, has been the first to gain widespread acceptance and use.

The Church authorities have condemned Wycliffe's translation, partially because they deem the commentary included with the work to be heretical, and partially because they believe any translation of the Bible from the Latin Vulgate to be a heretical undertaking.

Under pressure from Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury, Henry passes a law entitled De heretico comburendo (”Regarding the burning of heretics”), outlawing as heretics anyone owning an English translation of the Bible and specifically punishing, with burning at the stake, those who own or produce any translation of the Bible.

By enacting this law, one of the strictest religious censorship statutes ever enacted in England, Henry IV becomes the first English king to allow the burning of heretics, mainly to suppress the Lollard movement.

Lollard, Lollardi or Loller is the popular derogatory nickname given to those without an academic background, educated if at all only in English, who are reputed to follow the teachings of John Wycliffe in particular, and have certainly been considerably energized by the translation of the Bible into the English language.

Lollardy is supposed to have evolved from the teachings of John Wycliffe, a prominent theologian at the University of Oxford beginning in the 1350s—however, it is possible that the Lollard movement actually predates Wycliffe.

Its demands are primarily for reform of the Roman Catholic Church.

It teaches that piety is a requirement for a priest to be a "true" priest or to perform the sacraments, and that a pious layman has power to perform these same rites, believing that religious power and authority come through piety and not through the Church hierarchy.

Similarly, Lollardy emphasizes the authority of the Scriptures over the authority of priests.

It teaches the concept of the "Church of the Saved", meaning that Christ's true Church is the community of the faithful, which overlaps with but is not the same as the official Church of Rome.

It teaches a form of predestination and advocates apostolic poverty and taxation of Church properties.

It also denies transubstantiation in favor of consubstantiation.

English priest William Sawtrey, questioned in 1399 by the Bishop of Norwich over his beliefs and consequently arrested and imprisoned on charges of heresy until Sawtrey recanted to gain his release, has meanwhile preached Lollardism at St. Osyth's, eventually attracting the attention of church authorities.

Arundel summons Sawtrey to appear at St. Paul's Cathedral in London on February 12, 1401 to be questioned once again over his beliefs.

His views on a number of issues (including transubstantiation and adoration of the cross) are found to be contrary to the position of the church, and he is indicted on eight counts of heresy.

Arundel tries to persuade him to changes his views, but Sawtrey defends his position with scripture and refuses to be swayed.

Sawtrey is condemned as a relapsed heretic, degraded (stripped of his priesthood) and on February 26, 1401, given over for execution.

He appeals to the King and Parliament but both appeals are denied.

Sawtrey is burnt at the stake in March efore a crowd at Smithfield and thus becomes the first Lollard martyr.

Bohemian church reformer Jerome of Prague, a thirty-year-old wandering scholar educated at Prague, Oxford, Paris, Heidelberg, and Cologne who has become an advocate of John Wycliffe’s views, acquaints Czech religious reformer Jan Huss with these metaphysical and theological perspectives in 1401.

The following year, Huss, who had studying theology at the University of Prague and been ordained a priest, is appointed preacher at Prague’s Bethlehem chapel and begins organizing the Czech reform movement, criticizing the church's wealth and corruption and opposing the condemnation of Wycliffe's doctrine.

In 1403 Jerome had gone to Jerusalem, in 1405 to Paris, where he took his Master's degree, but Jean Gerson had driven him out.

In 1406 he took the same degree at the University of Cologne, and a little later at the University of Heidelberg.

A brilliant debater, Jerome becomes a spokesman for the Bohemian reform party in the university at Prague after his return here in 1407.

Northwest Europe (1408–1419 CE): Consolidation of Power and Continued Strife

England: Rebellions, Religion, and Regal Challenges

The reign of Henry IV continued to be marked by internal instability and rebellion. The Glyndŵr Rising, initiated in 1400 by the Welsh leader Owain Glyndŵr, persisted until approximately 1415, highlighting sustained Welsh resistance to English hegemony. Henry's reign was further troubled by repeated attempts to suppress religious dissent, primarily aimed at the Lollards, followers of the reformist doctrines of John Wycliffe. The intense persecution peaked with the burning of John Badby in 1410, making him one of the first laymen executed for heresy in England. Upon Henry IV’s death in 1413, his son ascended as Henry V, ushering in renewed English ambitions, particularly against France.

Henry V quickly asserted his authority and re-energized English claims in France, reigniting the longstanding conflict known as the Hundred Years' War. His decisive victory at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, despite being vastly outnumbered, became emblematic of English valor and military effectiveness, significantly bolstering his reputation and uniting his kingdom under a common cause.

Scotland: Power Struggles and Captivity

In Scotland, power continued to be contested internally amid external threats from England. Following Robert III’s death in 1406, his young son James I remained captive in English hands, held prisoner from 1406 to 1424. The regency was dominated by the Duke of Albany, who effectively ruled Scotland but faced constant political maneuvering and efforts to maintain authority amidst nobility rivalries and border disputes with England.

Ireland: Strengthening Gaelic Dominance

Ireland saw further erosion of Anglo-Norman control, with Gaelic clans such as the O’Neills and O’Briens consolidating their authority and extending their power bases. The English presence was increasingly confined to The Pale, with attempts at military intervention proving ineffectual against the resurgence of Gaelic traditions, customs, and independent rule.

Scandinavia: Stabilization of the Kalmar Union

Under Queen Margaret I and subsequently King Eric of Pomerania, the Kalmar Union strengthened its governance structures. Eric, crowned in 1397, continued Margaret's centralization policies, although Sweden periodically expressed resistance against the union's dominance. Still, by 1419, the Union remained intact, stabilizing northern European political dynamics despite underlying tensions.

Iceland: Continuation of Literary and Cultural Identity

Iceland, although politically subordinated within the Kalmar Union, preserved and continued its vibrant literary culture. Notable Icelandic sagas, poetry, and historical chronicles persisted as important cultural staples, underscoring Icelandic resilience and contributing to a distinct national identity that endured despite political subjugation.

Cultural Flourishing and Architectural Advances

Cultural and architectural advancements continued robustly across Northwest Europe. The ongoing construction of York Minster exemplified the era’s architectural brilliance, showcasing the Perpendicular Gothic style with its large windows and intricate tracery, reflecting both ecclesiastical power and artistic ambition. Musically, the era remained distinguished by the innovative compositions of John Dunstaple and Leonel Power, whose works influenced harmonic developments throughout Europe.

Legacy of the Era

By 1419 CE, Northwest Europe had entered a phase marked by both internal stabilization and external expansion. England, reinvigorated by Henry V's victories, sought renewed continental dominance, Scotland endured dynastic uncertainty, Gaelic Ireland fortified its independent traditions, and the Kalmar Union consolidated northern European influence. These dynamics, combined with continued cultural and architectural achievements, signaled the era as pivotal in shaping the region's subsequent historical trajectory.

Thomas Hoccleve’s Regement of Princes or De Regimine Principum, written for Henry V of England shortly before his accession, is an elaborate homily on virtues and vices, adapted from Aegidius de Colonna's work of the same name, from a supposititious epistle of Aristotle known as Secreta secretorum, and a work of Jacques de Cessoles (fl. 1300) translated later by Caxton as The Game and Playe of Chesse.

The Regement survives in forty-three manuscript copies.

It comments much on Henry V's lineage, to cement the House of Lancaster's claim to England's throne.

Its incipit is a poem encompassing about a third of the whole, containing further reminiscences of London tavern and club life in the form of dialogue between the poet and an old man.

Here Hoccleve coins the word "magutavent".

He also remonstrates with Sir John Oldcastle, a leading Lollard, calling on him to "rise up, a manly knight, out of the slough of heresy."

Rumors as late as 1414 have the Herefordshire-based Lollard leader, Sir John Oldcastle, communicating with Owain, and reinforcements are sent to the major castles in the north and south.

But by this time things are changing.

Henry IV had died in 1413 and his son King Henry V has begun to adopt a more conciliatory attitude to the Welsh.

Royal pardons are offered to the major leaders of the revolt and other opponents of his father's regime.

The heirs of those who had suffered in the last reign are restored gradually to their titles and estates.

On the other hand, where Henry sees a grave domestic danger, he acts firmly and ruthlessly—such as the Lollard discontent in January 1414, including the execution by burning of Henry's old friend Sir John Oldcastle, so as to "nip the movement in the bud" and make his own position as ruler secure.

Thomas Cromwell was born around 1485, in Putney, Surrey, as the son of Walter Cromwell, a blacksmith, fuller and cloth merchant, and owner of both a hostelry and a brewery.

Thomas's mother, Katherine, was the aunt of Nicholas Glossop of Wirksworth in Derbyshire.

She lived in Putney in the house of a local attorney, John Welbeck, in 1474 at the time of her marriage to Walter Cromwell.

Cromwell has two sisters: the elder, Katherine, who had married Morgan Williams, a Welsh lawyer; the younger, Elizabeth, had married a farmer, William Wellyfed.

Katherine and Morgan's son Richard will be employed in his uncle's service and change his name to Cromwell.

Richard's great-grandson is Oliver Cromwell, the Lord Protector following the English Civil War.

Little is known about Thomas Cromwell's early life.

It is believed that he was born at the top of Putney Hill, on the edge of Putney Heath, a noted haunt of highwaymen; only a few brave souls venture across it at night.

A successful merchant and lawyer, Thomas Cromwell is a self-made man of relatively humble beginnings whose intelligence and abilities enable him to rise to become the most powerful man in England next to the king.

His own father, Walter Cromwell, had been a jack of all trades—a blacksmith, fuller, and brewer—who had, from time to time, come to the attention of the authorities.

Thomas Cromwell had been sent to school as a boy, where he learned to read and write and was taught a little Latin.

Cromwell will later declare to Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer that he had been a "ruffian … in his young days".

As a youth, he left his family in Putney and crossed the Channel to the continent.

Accounts of his activities in France, Italy and the Low Countries are sketchy and contradictory.

It is alleged that he first became a mercenary and marched with the French army to Italy, where on December 28, 1503, he fought in the battle of Garigliano.

While in Italy, he entered service in the household of the Florentine banker Francesco Frescobaldi.

He later visited leading mercantile centers in the Low Countries, living among the English merchants and developing a network of contacts while learning several languages.

He returned at some point to Italy.

The records of the English Hospital in Rome indicate that he stayed there in June 1514, while documents in the Vatican Archives suggest that he was an agent for the Archbishop of York, Cardinal Christopher Bainbridge, and handled English ecclesiastical issues before the Roman Rota.

Cromwell at some time during these years had returned to England, where around 1515 he had married Elizabeth Wyckes, the widow of Thomas Williams, a Yeoman of the Guard, and the daughter of a Putney shearman, Henry Wykes, who had served as a Gentleman Usher to King Henry VII.

The couple have three children: Gregory, Anne Cromwell, and Grace Cromwell.

Cromwell had led an embassy to Rome in 1517, and again in 1518, to obtain from Pope Leo X a Papal Bull of Indulgence for the town of Boston, Lincolnshire.

Cromwell was firmly established by 1520 in London mercantile and legal circles.

He obtained a seat in the House of Commons in 1523, though the constituency he represented at that time has not been identified.

He was elected in 1524 as a member of Gray's Inn.

Cromwell's wife is believed to have died, most likely in the summer of 1528, during the epidemic of sweating sickness sweeping across England.

Cromwell's daughters, Anne and Grace, are believed to have died not long after their mother.