Makuria, Kingdom of

Near East (388–531 CE): Religious and Political Transitions

From 388 to 531 CE, the Near East experiences profound religious schisms, shifts in political control, and enduring cultural developments. These changes profoundly influence subsequent historical trajectories.

Religious Schism and Ecclesiastical Authority

The religious landscape is significantly altered by the Council of Chalcedon in 451 CE, which creates a major theological and political rift within Christianity. The council declares Christ as having two distinct natures, fully human and fully divine, contrasting sharply with the Coptic Monophysite belief dominant in Egypt, which posits Christ as having one divine-human nature. This theological divergence initiates a lasting schism, causing the Egyptian Church to separate from the authority of Constantinople and broader Catholic Christendom. The Coptic Church henceforth exists independently, profoundly shaping Egyptian religious identity.

Cyprus also asserts ecclesiastical independence, confirmed by Emperor Zeno following the discovery of the tomb of Saint Barnabas with an alleged apostolic gospel. The Church of Cyprus is thus granted autocephalous status, equal in ecclesiastical rank to the major patriarchates of Antioch, Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Constantinople.

Political Shifts and Imperial Fragmentation

Following the division of the Roman Empire in 395 CE, Palestine and Egypt fall under Eastern Roman (Byzantine) jurisdiction, governed from Constantinople. Imperial administration becomes increasingly centralized, contributing to tensions between local populations and distant Byzantine authority.

The political autonomy of Jewish communities in Palestine ends decisively with the abolition of the patriarchate around 425 CE. The Jewish office of Nasi (prince), a remnant of the ancient Sanhedrin, is dissolved, marking a final blow to Jewish political independence in the region.

Socioeconomic and Cultural Developments

Three successor states emerge from the remnants of the Meroitic kingdom by the sixth century CE: Nobatia in the north, Makuria centrally located around Dongolah, and Alodia in the southern region around Sawba. These states, led by warrior aristocracies, continue to adopt Greek titles and administrative models reflecting Roman influence.

The city of Najran, in present-day Saudi Arabia, develops as a significant Christian center with established ecclesiastical structures, even as it is ruled by a Jewish king. Meanwhile, the Arabian Peninsula sees diverse religious practices; in Mecca, pilgrimage traditions focused on sacred sites become integral to local prosperity.

Intellectual and Religious Legacies

The period sees continued intellectual activity, particularly within Jewish scholarly circles. The Talmudic tradition flourishes, with ongoing compilation and commentary reflecting intense religious and intellectual dedication.

Monasticism, initiated earlier in Egypt and Syria, remains influential through figures such as Macarius the Elder. These monastic communities further reinforce Christianity’s cultural and spiritual reach in the Near East.

Legacy of the Age

The era from 388 to 531 CE marks critical transitions characterized by religious schisms, shifting political landscapes, and cultural consolidation. The consequences of the Chalcedonian schism, the final loss of Jewish political autonomy, and the rise of local Christian and monastic identities set enduring patterns that shape the Near East's religious, political, and cultural trajectories for centuries.

Three states emerge by the sixth century as the political and cultural heirs of the Meroitic kingdom.

Nobatia in the north, also known as Ballanah, has its capital at Faras, in what is now Egypt; the central kingdom, Makuria, is centered at Dongolah, the old city on the Nile about one hundred and fifty kilometers south of modern Dunqulah; and Aiwa, in the heartland of old Meroe in the south, has its capital at Sawba.

In all three kingdoms, warrior aristocracies rule Meroitic populations from royal courts where functionaries bear Greek titles in emulation of the imperial Roman (Byzantine) court.

Contacts between Nubians and Arabs long predate the coming of Islam, but the arabization of the Nile Valley is a gradual process that occurs over a period of nearly one thousand years.

Arab nomads continually wander into the region in search of fresh pasturage, and Arab seafarers and merchants trade in Red Sea ports for spices and slaves.

Intermarriage and assimilation also facilitate arabization.

After the initial attempts at military conquest fail, the Arab commander in Egypt, Abd Allah ibn Saad, concludes the first in a series of regularly renewed treaties with the Nubians that, with only brief interruptions, will govern relations between the two peoples for more than six hundred years.

So long as Arabs rule Egypt, there is peace on the Nubian frontier; however, when non- Arabs acquire control of the Nile Delta, tension arises in Upper Egypt.

The coming of Islam will eventually change the nature of Sudanese society and facilitate the division of the country into north and south.

Islam also fosters political unity, economic growth, and educational development among its adherents; however, these benefits are restricted largely to urban and commercial centers.

The spread of Islam begins shortly after the Prophet Muhammad's death in 632, by which time he and his followers had converted most of Arabia's tribes and towns to Islam (literally, submission), which Muslims maintain united the individual believer, the state, and society under God's will.

Islamic rulers, therefore, exercise temporal and religious authority.

Islamic law (sharia), which is derived primarily from the Quran, encompasses all aspects of the lives of believers, who are called Muslims ("those who submit" to God's will).

Arab armies carry Islam north and east from Arabia into North Africa within a generation of Muhammad's death. 

Muslims impose political control over conquered territories in the name of the caliph (the Prophet's successor as supreme earthly leader of Islam).

The Islamic armies win a major North African victory in 643 in Tripoli (in modern Libya).

However, the Muslim subjugation of all of North Africa will take about seventy-five years.

The Arabs invade Nubia in 642 and again in 652, when they lay siege to the city of Dongola and destroy its cathedral.

The Nubians put up a stout defense, however, causing the Arabs to accept an armistice and withdraw their forces.

The earliest references to Nubia's successor kingdoms are contained in accounts by Greek and Coptic authors of the conversion of Nubian kings to Christianity in the sixth century.

According to tradition, a missionary sent by Roman (Byzantine) empress Theodora arrives in Nobatia and starts preaching the gospel about 540.

It is possible that the conversion process began earlier, however, under the aegis of Coptic missionaries from Egypt, who in the previous century had brought Christianity to the area.

The Nubian kings accept the Monophysite Christianity practiced in Egypt and acknowledge the spiritual authority of the Coptic patriarch of Alexandria over the Nubian church.

A hierarchy of bishops named by the Coptic patriarch and consecrated in Egypt directs the church's activities and wields considerable secular power.

The church sanctions a sacerdotal kingship, confirming the royal line's legitimacy.

In turn the monarch protects the church's interests.

The queen mother's role in the succession process parallels that of Meroe 's matriarchal tradition.

Because women transmit the right to succession, a renowned warrior not of royal birth might be nominated to become king through marriage to a woman in line of succession.

Near East (532–543 CE): Plague, Kingdoms, and Religious Expansion

In the era from 532 to 543 CE, significant events reshape the Near East through the emergence of epidemics, the establishment of kingdoms, and continued religious developments.

Plague of Justinian

The Byzantine historian Procopius reports an epidemic soon known as the Plague of Justinian, first noted in 541 CE at the port of Pelusium, near modern-day Suez, Egypt. This plague rapidly spreads, devastating populations throughout the Mediterranean and profoundly affecting the social and economic structures of the Byzantine Empire.

Rise of the Kingdom of Makuria

During this period, Old Dongola, a fortress city along the Nile River in modern-day Sudan, emerges as the capital of the kingdom of Makuria. Although its origins are uncertain, ancient geographer Ptolemy references a Nubian people known as the Makkourae, possible ancestors of the Makurians. Historians generally believe the kingdom formed around the fourth or fifth century. Early accounts by sixth-century chroniclers note the kingdom's initial hostility to Monophysite Christian missionaries traveling to neighboring Alodia, while John of Biclarum subsequently records their adoption of the rival Melkite faith. Several prominent churches, including the renowned "Old Church," are constructed in this period, marking a significant phase in Nubian Christianity.

Justinian’s Jerusalem

The Christian glorification of Jerusalem continues robustly into the sixth century under Emperor Justinian's patronage. The significant rebuilding of the Church of the Resurrection—also known as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre—occurs alongside the construction of many new churches, monasteries, and hospices. These developments transform Jerusalem into an even more revered pilgrimage center, reinforcing its critical role in the Christian spiritual and cultural landscape.

Legacy of the Era

The years 532–543 CE leave a substantial legacy in the Near East, defined by the far-reaching effects of the Justinianic plague, the consolidation and religious evolution of Nubian kingdoms such as Makuria, and the flourishing of Christian institutions in Jerusalem. These events collectively shape the religious, cultural, and political dynamics of the region for centuries.

The fortress city of Old Dongola (modern Sudan) along the Nile River becomes the capital of Makuria.

Several churches are built, including the "Old Church" (approximate date).

The origins of Makuria are uncertain.

Ptolemy mentions a Nubian people known as the Makkourae, who might be ancestors to the Makurians.

The kingdom is believed to have formed in the fourth or fifth century.

The first recorded mention of it is in a work by the sixth-century John of Ephesus, who decries its hostility to Monophysite missionaries traveling to Alodia.

John of Biclarum wrote approvingly soon after of the adoption by the "Makurritae"' of the rival Melkite faith.

Near East (544–555 CE): Stability Amid Challenges

Between 544 and 555 CE, the Near East experiences a period of relative stability despite the challenges posed by earlier disruptions, such as the Plague of Justinian. Significant developments continue in political, religious, and cultural spheres.

Recovery from the Plague

The devastating Plague of Justinian continues to influence life throughout the Near East. The initial outbreak had significantly diminished populations, disrupted economies, and strained administrative structures, but by the mid-550s, communities begin to stabilize and gradually recover. This recovery phase sees the re-establishment of trade routes, the revival of agricultural productivity, and a cautious rebuilding of urban centers.

Consolidation in Makuria

In the kingdom of Makuria, centered in the fortress city of Old Dongola along the Nile, Christian influence further solidifies. Building upon the religious foundations laid in previous decades, Makuria continues to develop its distinct Christian identity, notably through the construction of new religious edifices. This period reinforces Makuria's role as a significant political and religious power in Nubia, bridging cultural and trade connections between Sub-Saharan Africa and the Mediterranean world.

Religious and Cultural Flourishing in Jerusalem

Under continuing Byzantine influence, Jerusalem flourishes as a vital pilgrimage and spiritual center. The extensive building initiatives of Emperor Justinian, particularly the restoration of the Church of the Resurrection (Church of the Holy Sepulchre) and surrounding religious complexes, draw pilgrims from across the Christian world. Jerusalem's significance is further heightened by ongoing theological discourse and the establishment of numerous monasteries and hospices that support its role as a major hub of Christian devotion and scholarship.

Legacy of the Era

The era 544–555 CE consolidates the Near East's recovery from epidemic and turmoil, reinforcing the region’s critical role as a nexus of religious, cultural, and political interactions. Makuria emerges as an influential Christian kingdom in Africa, while Jerusalem remains central to Christian religious life, reflecting the enduring capacity of Near Eastern societies to adapt and flourish despite significant challenges.

Near East (556–567 CE): Christian Expansion and Cultural Assertions

Between 556 and 567 CE, the Near East continues to experience significant developments in political, religious, and cultural domains, particularly marked by notable efforts in religious assertion and architectural achievements.

Abraha's Cathedral at San‘a'

During this era, Abraha, the self-proclaimed king of Himyar in southern Arabia, undertakes a significant religious and political project by constructing a grand Christian cathedral in San‘a'. According to Islamic tradition, this ambitious architectural endeavor is part of Abraha's broader effort to promote Christianity in the region, reflecting both religious zeal and political ambition. The cathedral becomes a prominent symbol of Christianity's presence in southern Arabia, signifying shifting dynamics and cultural interactions.

Religious Influence in Makuria

The kingdom of Makuria, with its capital at Old Dongola along the Nile, continues to flourish as a prominent Christian state. Makuria's ongoing construction of religious edifices reinforces its distinct identity, bolstering the kingdom’s spiritual and cultural authority within Nubia and its connections to the broader Christian Mediterranean world.

Jerusalem as a Spiritual Hub

In Jerusalem, the city's importance as a center for Christian pilgrimage and religious scholarship remains prominent. The infrastructure established in previous decades under Emperor Justinian, particularly the restored Church of the Holy Sepulchre, continues to attract pilgrims and scholars. The city sustains its role as a vibrant hub for theological dialogue, monasticism, and spiritual devotion.

Legacy of the Era

The period from 556 to 567 CE highlights ongoing religious and cultural assertions within the Near East. Abraha’s cathedral symbolizes Christianity’s penetration into new regions, while Makuria and Jerusalem solidify their roles as influential centers of Christian culture and spirituality, underscoring the dynamic interplay of politics, religion, and architecture in shaping regional identity.

Alodia or Alwa, the southernmost of the three kingdoms of Nubia (the other two are Nobatia and Makuria to the north) is converted to Christianity in 569 by missionaries sent by the late Emperor Justinian and his wife Theodora.

Centered south of the great bend in the Nile river and south into the Gezira, Alodia has its capital at Soba, today a group of ruins on the Blue Nile, twelve miles from Khartoum.