Pontus, Kingdom of

One Mithradates (a common name among Anatolian rulers of the age, often misspelled Mithridates and meaning “gift of [the god] Mithra”) establishes a dynasty in the hinterland of Pontus, a maritime region of northeastern Anatolia sometimes associated with Cappadocia, in about 337.

The region's Greek seaports, such as Amisus and …

…Sinope, had officially been under Persian rule in previous decades, but have remained effectively autonomous.

Greek philosopher Diogenes of Sinope, a student of Antisthenes, is credited with the development of the chreia (moral epigram), with a scandalous attack on convention entitled Republic, and with tragedies illustrative of the human predicament.

He lives the Cynic ideal of self-sufficiency, a natural life independent of nonessentials.

Holding that virtue is best revealed in action, he makes his life a protest against what he believes to be a corrupt society.

Near East (333–190 BCE): Hellenistic Conquests and Cultural Transformations

Alexander's Empire and its Immediate Aftermath (333–322 BCE)

The year 333 BCE inaugurates the Hellenistic Age when Alexander III of Macedon defeats the Persian Empire, transforming the geopolitical landscape of the Near East. Alexander’s swift military successes culminate in notable victories at the battles of Granicus (334 BCE), Issus (333 BCE), and Gaugamela (331 BCE). After the prolonged and pivotal siege of Tyre in 332 BCE, Alexander's domain stretches from Greece to the borders of India. He strategically integrates conquered territories through city foundations, notably Alexandria in Egypt, and religious accommodations, earning acceptance among local populations. His unexpected death in 323 BCE at Babylon triggers a complex power struggle among his generals—Perdiccas, Ptolemy Soter, Seleucus, and Antigonus Monophthalmus—eventually leading to the division of Alexander’s vast empire into separate dynasties.

Emergence of the Hellenistic Monarchies (321–298 BCE)

Alexander's territories fragment into significant Macedonian dynasties by 298 BCE. In Egypt, the Ptolemies establish a prosperous rule, significantly influencing the region by founding the renowned Library of Alexandria and the monumental Pharos Lighthouse. In Syria and Mesopotamia, the Seleucid dynasty emerges, though it remains in recurrent conflict with the Ptolemies, particularly over strategically vital areas such as Coele-Syria (modern-day Lebanon and southern Syria). Notably, after a forty-year conflict, a decisive Seleucid victory concludes initial hostilities over Phoenician territories.

Cultural Integration and Scholarly Achievement (297–274 BCE)

The Near East experiences widespread Hellenization, adopting Greek artistic, scientific, and architectural standards. Intellectual advancement peaks with scholars like Euclid, whose foundational texts on geometry and optics profoundly influence science. Cities such as Ashkelon and Ashdod are widely recognized by their Hellenized names, Ascalon and Azotus, exemplifying the era’s cultural synthesis. Egypt’s Ptolemaic Museum and Library at Alexandria become major scholarly hubs, further embedding Greek culture and intellectualism into the region.

Dynastic Rivalries and Egyptian Decline (273–226 BCE)

The Near East remains marked by fierce dynastic rivalries, particularly the Damascene War (280 BCE) and the subsequent First Syrian War (274 BCE). The internal stability of Ptolemaic Egypt significantly weakens due to court intrigues, rebellions, and economic strains. Antiochus III exploits this turmoil, resulting in Egypt's near-total loss of its Asian territories following the Battle of Panium (200 BCE). Such territorial shifts profoundly alter regional power structures.

Revolts and the Rise of Regional Powers (225–190 BCE)

Seleucid domains experience instability due to revolts by powerful satraps, notably Achaeus and Attalus of Pergamon, who successfully assert independence in Asia Minor. Attalus I consolidates Pergamon's power through victories over the Galatians, celebrated in the renowned sculpture The Dying Gaul. The century ends with the devastating Roman–Syrian War (192–188 BCE), significantly curtailing Seleucid authority, limiting it to a fragmented domain centered in Mesopotamia and inland Syria.

Legacy of the Age

The Near East during the Hellenistic Age undergoes profound political and cultural transformations marked by the spread of Greek culture, administrative reforms, and vibrant urban planning. Influential cities like Alexandria and Pergamon symbolize these shifts, becoming enduring centers of culture and learning. Despite flourishing intellectually and artistically, persistent dynastic conflicts and internal instabilities ultimately create vulnerabilities that pave the way for Roman ascendancy, marking this period as a crucial transition shaping the historical evolution of the Near East.

…Byzantium, and …

The formidable task of holding together the empire falls to the son and successor of Seleucus on his father's assassination in 281 BCE.

Antiochus entombs his father's ashes in Seleucia, initiates (probably) the posthumous cult of his father, and orders his veneration as Zeus Nicator.

He is soon compelled to make peace with his father's murderer, Ptolemy Keraunos, apparently abandoning Macedonia and Thrace.

In Anatolia he is unable to reduce Bithynia or the Persian dynasties that rule in Cappadocia.

Antiochus is immediately beset by revolts in Syria (probably instigated by Egypt) and by independence movements in …

…northern Anatolia, whose states (led by Heraclea, …

…Bithynia, and …

…Pontus), form a league against the Seleucid king.

Pontus, with its capital at Amaseia (modern Amasya) established at the end of the fourth century in the wake of Alexander's conquests, is superficially Hellenized, but the kingdom retains its Persian social structure, with temple priests and Persianized feudal nobles ruling over a heterogeneous village population.

The Gauls, after discharging their military service to Bithynia, have by 276 settled in parts of Phrygia but continue to ravage and plunder on their own.

The Gallic horde continues to plague western Anatolia until checked in 275 by Antiochus at the so-called Elephant Battle.

At this point, the Celts, called Galatae (Galatians) by third-century writers, settle, courtesy of Nicomedes of Bithynia and Mithridates of Pontus, in an area of northern Phrygia stretching from southwest to northeast through the central Anatolian plateau (the region will become known as Galatia (from Galli, the Latin word for Celts), there to serve as a buffer against the Seleucids.

Angora, one of their hillforts, is today Ankara, the Turkish capital.