The Near and Middle East (820 – 963 CE): Abbasid Fragmentation, Local Dynasties, and the Maritime–Desert Frontier

Geographic and Environmental Context

The Near and Middle East extended from Anatolia and the eastern Mediterranean through the Tigris–Euphrates basin and the Iranian uplands to the Arabian and Red Sea coasts and Gulf rim.
It included three linked zones:

• The Middle East—Mesopotamia, Iran, Syria, the Caucasus, and the Persian Gulf littoral.

• The Near East—Egypt, the Levant, western Arabia, Yemen, Sudan/Nubia, and western Anatolia.

• Southeast Arabia—the incense-producing highlands and coasts of Hadhramaut and Dhofar, the Empty Quarter, and Socotra, the island midway between Arabia and India.

Together these regions formed the central hinge of Afro–Eurasian civilization: canals, caravan routes, and monsoon ports tied together the Mediterranean, Indian Ocean, and Inner Asian worlds.

Climate and Environmental Shifts

The period fell within late-Holocene stability:

• Mesopotamia and the Nile Valley maintained fertile irrigation systems;

• Syrian and Anatolian uplands relied on rain-fed farming, sensitive to local drought;

• Arabian deserts remained arid but supported caravan mobility;

• Oases and wadis in Hadhramaut, Dhofar, and Oman sustained terrace farming and resin groves;

• Gulf fisheries and pearl banks flourished under consistent sea temperatures.

This steady climate sustained both agrarian production and long-distance commerce.

Societies and Political Developments

Abbasid Caliphate and Regional Dynasties

• Baghdad, still the symbolic heart of the Islamic world, saw its authority erode under competing dynasties and governors.

• In Iran and Iraq, the Tahirids (Khurasan), Saffarids (Sistan), and Samanids (Transoxiana) rose to prominence.

• In 945, the Buyids, a Shiʿi-leaning Persian house, seized Baghdad itself, reducing the caliphs to nominal figureheads.

• Syria and Cilicia oscillated between Abbasid, Tulunid (868–905), and Ikhshidid (935–969) rule, with Byzantine–Muslim frontier warfare along the Cilician thughūr.

• The Caucasus saw the revival of Christian kingdoms: Bagratid Armenia regained sovereignty in 885, while Georgia’s Bagrationi princes consolidated their realms.

Egypt and the Levant

• Ahmad ibn Tulun (868–884) founded the Tulunid dynasty, asserting Egypt’s autonomy.

  • His capital near Fustat built monumental mosques and efficient fiscal systems.

• After Tulunid decline, the Ikhshidids maintained quasi-independent rule until the Fatimids seized Egypt in 969.

• Levantine ports—notably Tyre and Tripoli—prospered as glass, textile, and sugar centers.

• In western Anatolia, Byzantine control persisted along the Aegean, despite raids from Cilicia and Syria.

Arabia and the Gulf

• Eastern Arabia and Oman: The Qarmatians, a radical Shiʿi movement centered in al-Ahsa–Qatif, rose after 899, seizing Bahrain and attacking pilgrim caravans.

• Ibāḍī Oman endured as a theocratic state, its ports at Suhar and Qalhat linking the Gulf to India.

• In Yemen, Zaydi imams established authority in the northern highlands, while the southern Hadhramaut and Dhofar valleys thrived on frankincense cultivation.

• Socotra stood as a maritime crossroads where Arab, Persian, and Indian traders mingled with local Austronesian-descended seafarers.

• The Empty Quarter (Rubʿ al-Khali) remained the preserve of Bedouin tribes guiding caravans across vast, ungoverned sands.

Sudan, Nubia, and Christian Frontiers

• Makuria and Alodia, Christian kingdoms of the Nile south of Aswan, maintained independence through the Baqt treaty, trading slaves and gold for Egyptian grain and textiles.

• Armenia and Georgia to the north and Nubia to the south framed the Islamic heartlands with strong Christian enclaves, balancing the Abbasid world through diplomacy and trade.

Economy and Trade

• Agrarian cores:

  • Iraq and Khuzestan: grain, dates, flax, and cotton under canal irrigation.

  • Egypt: Nile surpluses of wheat, barley, and linen textiles.

  • Yemen and Oman: aromatics, coffee precursors, horses, and pearls.

  • Syria and Anatolia: olives, vines, and cereals.

• Maritime commerce:

  • The Persian Gulf hosted fleets linking Basra and Siraf to India, Socotra, and East Africa.

  • The Red Sea tied Aden, Aydhab, and Jeddah to Egypt and Levantine ports.

• Caravan and overland routes:

  • From Tabriz–Rayy–Nishapur across Iran;

  • Mosul–Aleppo–Cilicia toward the Byzantine frontier;

  • Caucasus passes (Darial/Derbent);

  • Hadhramaut–Najran–Mecca incense road through the desert interior.

• Coinage and credit: Abbasid gold dīnārs and silver dirhams circulated widely; regional mints under Buyids and Samanids proliferated; merchants’ letters of credit (suftaja) streamlined long-distance exchange.

Subsistence and Technology

• Canals and qanāt systems sustained Mesopotamia and Iran.

• Syrian norias and Yemeni terraces optimized water management.

• Shipbuilding: sewn-plank and nailed hulls; lateen sails enabled monsoon navigation.

• Craft industries: Egyptian linen, Levantine glass, Persian silks, Yemeni aromatics, and Anatolian wines defined the region’s artisan wealth.

• Military innovation: cavalry archery, heavy cataphracts, and fortified passes; the Cilician frontier became a laboratory of cross-cultural warfare.

Movement and Interaction Corridors

• Tigris–Euphrates canal system: arteries of Mesopotamian life.

• Nile River: the logistical spine of Egypt.

• Red Sea and Arabian Sea routes: joined the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean via Aden and Socotra.

• Caucasus and Anatolian corridors: funneled trade between steppe and Mediterranean.

• Pilgrimage routes: Mecca and Medina connected the Islamic world through faith and exchange.

From the incense valleys of Dhofar to the ports of Tyre and Tripoli, these networks bound deserts, rivers, and seas into one integrated economy.

Belief and Symbolism

• Islam: Abbasid orthodoxy persisted at Baghdad, but regional heterodoxies thrived—Qarmatian egalitarianism, Zaydi imamate in Yemen, and Ibāḍī autonomy in Oman.

• Christianity: Byzantium retained coastal Anatolia and Cyprus; Armenia, Georgia, Nubia, and Makuria remained vibrant Christian realms on Islam’s periphery.

• Judaism: thriving mercantile communities in Cairo, Fustat, and the Levant linked Mediterranean and Indian Ocean trade.

• Pilgrimage and ritual: The Hajj unified Muslims across regions; incense rituals in Dhofar and Hadhramaut blended ancient practice with Islamic trade wealth.

• Socotra’s syncretism: Islam and Christianity coexisted with pre-Islamic traditions, embodying the cultural crossroads of the Arabian Sea.

Adaptation and Resilience

• Decentralization allowed flexibility: Tulunid Egypt, Buyid Iraq, and Zaydi Yemen adapted governance to local needs.

• Hydraulic and maritime redundancy—multiple water and trade routes—buffered ecological shocks.

• Pluralism fostered resilience: Islamic, Christian, and Jewish communities often cooperated economically.

• Caravan–port symbiosis balanced overland and sea commerce, ensuring continuity even amid political fragmentation.

Long-Term Significance

By 963 CE, the Near and Middle East had evolved into a polycentric system:

• Baghdad remained the spiritual capital but shared power with Buyid amirs, Tulunid–Ikhshidid Egypt, Zaydi Yemen, and Qarmatian Bahrain.

• Christian Armenia, Georgia, Nubia, and Byzantine Anatolia endured as autonomous partners and rivals.

• Southeast Arabia and Socotra connected caravan deserts with Indian Ocean circuits, ensuring the region’s role as the commercial and religious nexus of the Old World.

This balance of fragmentation and connectivity defined the transitional centuries between the early Abbasid empire and the later Islamic golden age—an era of hydraulic empires, desert confederations, and maritime corridors linking Africa, Asia, and Europe in a single interdependent world.

Middle East (820 – 963 CE): Abbasid Fragmentation, Caucasian Kingdoms, and the Qarmatian Gulf

Geographic and Environmental Context

As defined above. Key zones: Baghdad–Tigris, Tabriz–Azerbaijan–Rayy, Caucasus (Armenia–Georgia–Azerbaijan), Cilicia and Syrian uplands, eastern Jordan, northeastern Cyprus, and the eastern Arabia–northern Oman–Gulf rim.

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• Stable late-Holocene conditions; productivity hinged on Tigris–Euphrates canals, qanāt belts in Iran, and Syrian rain-fed plains.

• Gulf fisheries and pearls flourished; steppe margins swung with rainfall.

Societies and Political Developments

• Abbasid Baghdad retained symbolic primacy while power devolved to regional dynasts.

• Iran–Iraq: Tahirids (Khurasan), Saffarids (Sistan) and Samanids (Transoxiana/Khurasan) pressed Abbasid frontiers; Buyids seized Baghdad in 945, creating a Shi‘i-leaning amirate over the caliphs.

• Syria & Cilicia: administered under Abbasid/Tulunid (868–905) and later Ikhshidid (935–969) governors; Cilician thughūr (frontiers) saw Byzantine–Muslim raiding.

• Caucasus: Bagratid Armenia restored kingship (885); Georgia consolidated under Bagrationi princes.

• Eastern Arabia–Gulf: the Qarmatians (from 899) dominated al-Ahsa–Qatif, raiding the Gulf and pilgrim routes; northern Oman maintained Ibāḍī polities and port autonomy.

• Northeastern Cyprus: intermittent Byzantine–Abbasid condominium and raiding base.

• Lebanon (north/coastal—Tripoli) prospered as a glass/textile port (southernmost strip excluded).

Economy and Trade

• Irrigated cores: Mesopotamian grain/dates/flax; Persian cotton/silk; Syrian cereals/olives.

• Gulf maritime: pearls (Bahrain/Qatif), horses, dates, and Gulf–India traffic via Hormuz’s precursors and Omani ports.

• Caravans: Tabriz–Rayy–Khurasan silk/horse routes; Aleppo/upper Syria to Jazira–Iraq.

• Coinage: Abbasid dīnārs/dirhams; regional mints proliferated under Buyids/Samanids.

Subsistence and Technology

• Canals & qanāt kept oases productive; Syrian norias; glass/textiles in Syrian and Lebanese workshops.

• Military: cavalry, composite bows; fortified Cilician passes.

Movement Corridors

• Tabriz–Rayy–Nishapur; Mosul–Aleppo–Cilicia; Baghdad–Basra–Gulf; Caucasus passes (Darial/Derbent); northeastern Cyprus as a coastal node.

Belief and Symbolism

• Sunni orthodoxy at Baghdad; Shi‘i Buyid patronage later in the century.

• Armenian/Georgian churches flourished; Ibāḍī Oman endured.

• Qarmatian heterodoxy challenged pilgrimage and Abbasid prestige.

Long-Term Significance

By 963, the Middle East was a polycentric field: Buyid Baghdad, Armenian–Georgian crowns, Ikhshidid Syria/Cilicia, and a Qarmatian-dominated Gulf—frameworks that would channel Fatimid, Seljuk, and Byzantine surges in the next age.

The Middle East: 892–903 CE

Abbasid Consolidation, Regional Revolts, and Cultural Advances

Restoration of Abbasid Authority

In 896 CE, Abbasid Caliph al-Mu'tadid decisively crushes the long-standing Kharijite Rebellion, restoring caliphal authority across the troubled regions. However, despite this victory, the Abbasid Caliphate continues to face significant internal and external challenges.

Rise of the Qarmatians

At the close of the ninth century, Bahrain—encompassing much of eastern Arabia and surrounding islands—falls prey to internal strife exacerbated by disturbances in Abbasid Iraq. Seizing upon these disruptions, the Qarmatians, led by Abu Sa'id al-Hasan al-Jannabi, take control of Bahrain’s capital, Hajr, and the region of al-Hasa in 899 CE. Al-Jannabi establishes a utopian society, positioning al-Hasa as the capital of his revolutionary republic. The Qarmatian state thus emerges as a formidable new power in the region.

Geographical Scholarship and Persian Culture

The Persian geographer Ahmad ibn Rustah composes his significant geographical work, the Book of Precious Records, during this era. Ibn Rustah's meticulous account provides valuable firsthand insights, especially about his hometown of Isfahan, detailing its layout, defenses, and administrative divisions. His writings also encompass broader geographic descriptions, including Europe and Inner Asia, making him an indispensable source for otherwise poorly documented regions. Ibn Rustah's notable observation of a Caucasian king who pragmatically worships with Muslims, Jews, and Christians highlights the region's religious diversity and political pragmatism.

Emergence and Identity of the Kurds

The term "Kurd" appears increasingly in early Islamic sources, primarily referencing pastoral nomadic lifestyles rather than defining a distinct linguistic or ethnic group. Early Persian and Arabic texts describe "Kurds" as an amalgamation of various Iranian and Iranicized nomadic tribes, often highlighting their nomadic and pastoral traits rather than linguistic unity.

Medical Advances and Cultural Contributions

The renowned Persian physician Agha Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (also known as al-Razi, 845–930 CE), who maintains a laboratory and medical school in Baghdad, significantly advances medical knowledge. In his manual, Man la Yahduruhu Al-Tabib, al-Razi notably advocates the use of opium for anesthesia and the treatment of melancholy, reflecting both practical medical innovations and the continuing legacy of classical medical traditions.

Jewish Mysticism and Philosophical Developments

The prominent Jewish philosopher and scholar Saadia ben Joseph al-Fayyumi, known as Saadia Gaon, heads the Talmudic academy of Sura. Saadia engages in extensive theological and philosophical debates, notably confronting the Karaites over their challenges to Judaic tradition. His significant literary contributions include commentaries on mystical texts like the Sefer Yetzira (Book of Creation), foundational in the development of Jewish cosmology and mysticism. Saadia’s writings profoundly influence Jewish mystical thought, particularly regarding the sefirot, which conceptualize humanity as a microcosm of creation.

Linguistic Shifts in Iranian Languages

This period witnesses significant linguistic transitions, with the flexible word order characteristic of Middle Iranian languages gradually evolving into the more rigid word order structures of Modern Iranian languages. This shift marks an essential phase in the historical development of the Iranian linguistic tradition.

Bahrain, which at this period includes much of eastern Arabia as well as the islands that comprise the present state, is under Abbasid control at the end of the ninth century, but a rebellion of enslaved people in Basra disrupts the power of Baghdad.

The Qarmatians seize their opportunity under their leader Abu Sa'id al-Hasan al-Jannabi, who in 899 captures Bahrain’s capital Hajr and al-Hasa, which he makes the capital of his republic; once in control of the state, he seeks to create a utopian society.

Various Shī‘ī groups organize in secret opposition to the Abbasid Caliphate.

Among them are the supporters of the proto-Isma'ili community, of whom the most prominent group are called the Mubarakiyyah.

According to the Isma'ili school of thought, Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣadiq (702–765) designated his second son, Isma'il ibn Jafar, born in 721,  as heir to the Imamate.

However, Ismā‘īl predeceased his father in 755.

Some claimed he had gone into hiding, but the proto-Isma'ili group accepted his death and therefore accordingly recognized Isma'il’s eldest son, Muḥammad ibn Isma'il (746–809), as Imām.

He remained in contact with the Mubarakiyyah group, most of whom resided in Kufah.

The split among the Mubarakiyyah came with the death of Muḥammad ibn Isma'ili in about 813 CE.

The majority of the group denied his death; they recognized him as the Mahdi.

The minority believed in his death and will eventually emerge in later times as the Faṭimid Isma'ili, the precursors to all modern groups.

The majority Isma'ili missionary movement has settled in Salamiyah (in present-day Syria) and has had great success in Khuzestan (southwestern Persia), where the Isma'ili leader al-Husayn al-Ahwazi had converted the Kūfan man Ḥamdan in 874 CE, who had taken the name Qarmaṭ after his new faith.

Qarmaṭ and his theologian brother-in-law ‘Abdān have prepares southern Iraq for the coming of the Mahdi by creating a military and religious stronghold.

Other such locations have grown up in Yemen, in Bahrain in 899 CE and in North Africa.

These attract many new Shī‘ī followers due to their activist and messianic teachings.

This new proto-Qarmaṭi movement continues to spread into Greater Iran and into Transoxiana.

A change in leadership in Salamiyah in 899 leads to a split in the movement.

The minority Isma'ilis, whose leader has taken control of the Salamiyah center, begin to proclaim their teachings—that Imam Muḥammad has died, and that the new leader in Salamiyah is in fact his descendant come out of hiding.

Qarmaṭ and his brother-in-law oppose this and openly break with the Salamiyyids; when ‘Abdān is assassinated, he goes into hiding and subsequently repents.

Qarmaṭ becomes a missionary of the new Imam, Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah, who will found the Fatimid Caliphate in North Africa in 909.

Nonetheless, the dissident group retains the name Qarmaṭī.

Their greatest stronghold remains in Bahrain, which at this period includes much of eastern Arabia as well as the islands that comprise the present state.

Bahrain is under Abbasid control at the end of the ninth century, but a slave rebellion in Basra disrupts the power of Baghdad.

The Qarmaṭians seize their opportunity under their leader, Abu-Saʿid Jannabi, who captures Bahrain’s capital Hajr and al-Hasa in 899, which he makes the capital of his republic.

Once in control of the state he seeks to set up a utopian society.

The Qarmatians are alleged to oppose many of the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad, and they encourage social equality for nomads, townspeople, and peasants.

Al-'Abbas ibn 'Amr al-Ghanawi, who was likely born in the Diyar Mudar district of al-Jazira, had embarked on a military career in the service of the Abbasids and is first recorded as one of the officers in charge of an expedition sent against unruly Arab tribes in Iraq In the following year he had been appointed by the caliph al-Mu'tadid as governor of al-Bahrain and al-Yamamah and tasked with driving the Qarmatians led by Abu Sa'id Jannabi out of the region.

Since the Qarmatians have already successfully occupied much of al-Bahrain, including al-Qatif, al-'Abbas had assembled an army of regular soldiers, Bedouin fighters and volunteers before departing from al-Basra for the province.

Shortly after their departure, al-'Abbas and his army meet the Qarmatians and engage them in battle.

The first day of fighting ends in a standstill, but in the evening the Bedouins and volunteers abandon the campaign and return to al-Basra.

The following morning, the two armies resume fighting, and al-'Abbas's depleted forces are routed; he and seven hundred of his men are compelled to surrender.

The day after the battle, Abu Sa'id orders that the captured soldiers all be put to death; al-'Abbas alone is spared and is eventually released, with instructions to warn al-Mu'tadid of the futility in opposing the Qarmatians.

He returns to Iraq and is rewarded by al-Mu'tadid for his efforts.

Amr ibn al-Layth on April 20, 902, is executed in Baghdad on the orders of the caliph's vizier, al-Qasim ibn Ubayd Allah.

Most of al-Jazira is back under the central government's authority by the end of Al-Mu'tadid’s reign in October 902.

Kharijite rebel activity in the province will subsequently taper off, with only one further revolt in 929 being recorded.

Al-Mu'tadid is succeeded by his designated heir, al-Muktafi, whom his father had taken care to prepare for his role as governor in Rayy and the Jazira.

Al-Mu'tadid's reign is credited with having arrested the Abbasid Caliphate's decline for a while, but his successes were overly dependent on the presence of an energetic ruler at the helm.

The Middle East: 904–915 CE

Fragmentation of Abbasid Authority and the Rise of Regional Powers

From 904 to 915 CE, the Abbasid Caliphate faces an accelerating decline of central authority, evident through the growing autonomy and influence of ambitious provincial governors and military commanders. The Abbasid caliphs, increasingly confined to ceremonial roles in Baghdad, see their practical power diminish significantly.

Emergence of Local Dynasties

Local and regional dynasties solidify their control throughout the empire. The Saffarids, having displaced the Tahirids in eastern Iran, consolidate their power by 873 and assert continued dominance during this period. Additionally, Mesopotamia sees the rise of various regional rulers, further fragmenting the caliphate’s once-unified territories.

Revolt and Rebellion

In Bahrain, which encompasses significant portions of eastern Arabia, the Qarmatians under Abu Sa'id al-Hasan al-Jannabi fortify their hold following their earlier capture of the capital Hajr and al-Hasa in 899 CE. Al-Jannabi continues to establish his revolutionary republic based on utopian ideals, significantly disrupting Abbasid control in the region.

Intellectual and Cultural Flourishing

Despite political fragmentation, intellectual and cultural advancements persist. The Persian geographer Ahmad ibn Rustah compiles his detailed geographic compendium, the Book of Precious Records, providing valuable first-hand descriptions of his native Isfahan and insights into regions as distant as Europe and Inner Asia.

The esteemed Persian physician Agha Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (al-Razi) continues to advance medical knowledge from his school in Baghdad, advocating opium use in anesthesia and melancholy treatment, reflecting continued innovation within Islamic medical traditions.

Religious and Linguistic Transformations

The Jewish philosopher and theologian Saadia Gaon remains active as head of the Talmudic academy of Sura, vigorously debating religious interpretations and authoring significant commentaries, notably on mystical texts such as the Sefer Yetzira. These writings greatly influence Jewish mystical thought, especially regarding the concept of the sefirot.

Linguistically, the transition from Middle Iranian languages to Modern Iranian continues, marked by a shift toward more rigid grammatical structures and syntax.

Kurdish Identity and Cultural Shifts

The identity of the "Kurds" becomes clearer in early Islamic sources, though still primarily described by their nomadic and pastoral lifestyle rather than as a distinct linguistic group. They emerge as a significant presence in the social and political dynamics of the region.

Thus, this era encapsulates both the fragmentation of Abbasid political authority and ongoing cultural and intellectual vitality across the Middle East.

The Qarmatians, withdrawing into Arabia in 906, establish an independent Muslim state on the western shore of the Persian Gulf (near present Bahrain).

The caliphate soon subjugates those Qarmatians that had elected to remain in Syria.