The Growth of Christianity in the Roman Empire and Its Relationship with Judaism

During the early centuries of the Common Era, Christianity gradually gained a foothold in the Roman Empire, evolving from a small sect of Judaism into a distinct religious movement. As Christianity spread, its leaders sought to establish a universal message that appealed to a wider audience beyond the Jewish community.

Christianity’s Interpretation of the Hebrew Bible

• Early Christian theologians reinterpreted the Hebrew Bible (which they termed the “Old Testament”) as a precursor to the New Testament, claiming that:

  • The laws and prophecies of the Old Testament were fulfilled through Jesus Christ.
  • Christian believers—both Jews and Gentiles—represented the new Israel, spiritually and physically.

• This reinterpretation positioned Christianity as the continuation and fulfillment of Jewish tradition, differentiating it from Judaism, which maintained its adherence to Mosaic Law and awaited a different messianic fulfillment.

Christian Views on Jewish Exile and Survival

• Many early Christians interpreted the Jewish exile as a divine punishment, believing it was a consequence of:

  • The Jews’ rejection of Jesus as the Messiah.
  • Their perceived role in his crucifixion, an accusation that contributed to Christian anti-Judaism in later centuries.

• At the same time, the continued survival of Judaism, despite exile and persecution, puzzled many early Christians.

  • Some saw Jewish endurance as stubborn defiance of divine will.
  • Others, such as Augustine of Hippo, later argued that the Jewish people were preserved by God as “witnesses” to the validity of Christian prophecy, even in their dispersion.

Impact on Christian-Jewish Relations

• As Christianity became the dominant religion of the Roman Empire, tensions with Jewish communities intensified.

• Christian leaders sought to differentiate their faith from Judaism, leading to:

  • Theological disputes over the interpretation of scripture.
  • Legal restrictions on Jewish practices under Christianized Roman rule.
  • The development of Christian supersessionism, the belief that Christianity had replaced Judaism in God’s covenant.

• Despite opposition, Judaism survived and continued to develop, leading to a complex and often strained relationship between the two religious traditions throughout Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages.

Conclusion: Christianity’s Rise and Its Effects on Jewish Identity

The early growth of Christianity in the Roman Empire involved reinterpretations of Jewish scripture, shaping its self-identity as the “new Israel”. However, Jewish persistence despite exile challenged Christian theological narratives, leading to centuries of debate, tension, and periodic persecution. This dynamic profoundly influenced religious thought and interfaith relations throughout history.

North Africa (244–387 CE)

Imperial Challenges, Economic Stability, and Cultural Resilience

Imperial Crises and Regional Adaptation (244–292 CE)

Between 244 and 303 CE, North Africa navigates significant challenges due to the broader Roman Crisis of the Third Century. Despite administrative disruptions, the region maintains coherence, supported by resilient urban centers and infrastructure investments. Notable uprisings occur, including the unsuccessful landowner rebellion of 238 CE against imperial fiscal policies, and sporadic tribal revolts in the Mauretanian mountains from 253 to 288 CE. Economic difficulties affect urban areas, slowing building activities.

Roman military units maintain vigilant frontier defense, countering persistent threats from Berber incursions and Saharan nomadic groups. Economic resilience persists through sustained production of grain and olive oil, commodities vital to the Roman economy. Prominent trade cities such as Utica, Leptis Magna, and Caesarea (Cherchell) sustain active Mediterranean trade networks.

Jewish communities, descended from Punic settlers and deported populations from Palestine following revolts against Roman rule, represent a significant urban presence. Several Berber tribes also embrace Judaism. Christianity, introduced in the second century, rapidly expands among urban populations and slaves. By 256 CE, over eighty bishops, including some from distant Numidian frontier regions, participate in the Council of Carthage.

Diocletian's Administrative Reforms and Africa Byzacena (293–327)

At the end of the third century CE, the Roman Emperor Diocletian reorganizes the great Roman province of Africa Proconsularis into three smaller, more manageable provinces. The northernmost province, Zeugitana, remains under a proconsul, still commonly referred to as Proconsularis. Directly to its south, the province of Byzacena is created, roughly corresponding to the modern Tunisian region of the Sahel, with its capital established at Hadrumetum (modern Sousse). Further to the southeast lies Tripolitania, corresponding approximately to modern southeastern Tunisia and northwestern Libya.

Byzacena quickly emerges as a major economic and administrative center. Renowned for its olive oil production and vibrant trade networks, it rapidly becomes one of the wealthiest and most strategically vital provinces of Roman Africa. Hadrumetum, the provincial capital, rises to prominence not only as an economic hub but also as an ecclesiastical center. By the late third century, the Metropolitan Archbishopric of Byzacena ranks as the most significant Christian community in Roman North Africa after Carthage, playing a critical role in shaping regional religious and cultural developments.

Under Diocletian and later Constantine the Great, North Africa benefits from significant administrative reforms that enhance stability and economic prosperity. Improved governance structures and reinforced defenses ensure security and sustained agricultural productivity.

Numidia and Mauretania experience infrastructure improvements that promote economic integration and social stability. Under Emperor Diocletian at the close of the third century CE, the extensive Roman territory known as Mauretania undergoes significant administrative reorganization. Initially, the region is divided into two provinces: Mauretania Caesariensis, with its capital at Caesarea (modern Cherchell), and Mauretania Tingitana, centered on Tingis (modern Tangier). This division reflects Rome's intent to improve administrative control, frontier defense, and economic management along the extensive North African coast and its hinterlands. 

Further subdivision occurs under Emperor Constantine the Great around 314 CE, when a third province, Mauretania Sitifensis, is carved out of the eastern regions of Mauretania Caesariensis. This new province, with its capital at Sitifis (modern Sétif), serves to enhance administrative oversight and frontier security, particularly against persistent incursions by Berber tribes from the adjacent mountainous areas.

The establishment of these provinces—Mauretania Caesariensis, Mauretania Tingitana, and Mauretania Sitifensis—strengthens Roman control and fosters regional economic growth, laying a stable administrative foundation that would persist through the late Roman period and significantly influence the political and cultural landscape of North Africa.

Cyrenaica and Tripolitania thrive, sustaining robust trade networks, intellectual pursuits, and cultural preservation, particularly in cities like Cyrene and Leptis Magna.

Christian communities endure the Great Persecution (303 CE), demonstrating remarkable resilience and strengthening social cohesion. A significant schism within the Christian church, known as Donatism, arises in 313 CE. Donatists emphasize church purity, reject sacramental authority from those who complied with Diocletian’s anti-Christian measures, and oppose Constantine’s involvement in church affairs.

Sustained Stability and Cultural Flourishing (328–363 CE)

Between 328 and 363 CE, North Africa maintains stability amid imperial transitions following Constantine’s death. Effective governance, continuous economic productivity, and vigilant defenses ensure regional coherence.

The region remains economically robust, especially in grain and olive oil production. Urban centers continue to flourish. By the late fourth century, most settled regions are predominantly Christian, and several Berber tribes convert en masse.

Persistent cultural syncretism continues among diverse communities, integrating indigenous Berber traditions with Roman, Greek, Phoenician, and Saharan influences, reinforcing cultural vibrancy and adaptability.

Imperial Challenges and Persistent Resilience (364–387 CE)

From 364 to 387 CE, North Africa encounters increased imperial instability, notably after the Battle of Adrianople (378 CE). Nevertheless, the region exhibits considerable resilience, bolstered by stable governance structures, effective military vigilance, and sustained economic prosperity.

Numidia and Mauretania continue stable economic and social integration, while Cyrenaica and Tripolitania maintain intellectual vibrancy and prosperous trade links. The Garamantes and pastoral communities such as the Mauri remain essential in trans-Saharan trade.

Christianity maintains a robust role, adapting to changing dynamics and reinforcing regional cohesion. Jewish populations continue thriving, significantly contributing to the region’s cultural diversity.

Overall Regional Resilience and Strategic Importance

By 387 CE, North Africa demonstrates impressive stability, successfully navigating complex imperial dynamics. Sustained economic productivity, vigilant defense strategies, vibrant urban centers, and dynamic cultural interactions underline its enduring strategic significance within the Roman Empire.

Atlantic West Europe (244–387): Crisis, Transformation, and the Foundations of Late Antiquity

From 244 to 387, Atlantic West Europe—covering Gaul (modern France), the Rhineland, Alsace, Aquitaine, and the Low Countries—experienced profound transformations, shaped by imperial crises, military turmoil, economic shifts, and the rise of Christianity. This turbulent era marked a decisive transition from classical Roman stability toward the evolving complexities of Late Antiquity.

Political and Military Developments

The Crisis of the Third Century (244–284)

• Roman authority weakened dramatically amid invasions, internal rebellions, and rapid imperial turnover. Germanic raids, particularly by the Franks, devastated northeastern Gaul and the Rhineland, causing widespread economic and social disruption.

• The Gallic Empire (260–274), founded by the usurper Postumus, temporarily provided stability, defending regional interests but ultimately reintegrating into the Roman Empire under Emperor Aurelian (274).

Diocletianic and Constantinian Reforms (284–337)

• Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305) enacted critical reforms, dividing administrative responsibilities and fortifying the Rhine frontier, leading to improved security and governance.

• Constantine the Great (r. 306–337) strengthened the region by reinforcing the Rhine defenses and stabilizing Gaul politically and economically through administrative reorganization and promotion of Christianity, notably after the pivotal Battle of Milvian Bridge (312).

Julian and Valentinian Dynasties (337–375)

• Emperor Julian (355–363) governed Gaul effectively, decisively defeating the Alemanni at the Battle of Strasbourg (357), temporarily securing the region’s eastern borders.

• Valentinian I (364–375) further fortified Rhine defenses, yet frequent frontier skirmishes continued, highlighting persistent vulnerabilities.

Frontier Crises and Magnus Maximus (376–387)

• The Battle of Adrianople (378) significantly weakened Roman military resources, exposing Gaul to increased frontier threats.

• Magnus Maximus (383–387), proclaimed emperor by his troops in Britain, briefly stabilized Atlantic West Europe, ruling from Trier before his defeat by Theodosius I (387).

Economic and Social Developments

Economic Instability and Ruralization

• The persistent raids and invasions of the mid-third century profoundly damaged regional economies. Trade routes became insecure, leading to urban decline, depopulation, and the rise of rural estates (villae) as self-sufficient economic units.

Urban Resilience and Recovery

• Despite widespread disruptions, major urban centers—such as Trier, Lyon, and Bordeaux—remained significant, serving as administrative, economic, and cultural hubs.

• Trier notably flourished as an imperial residence, witnessing extensive monumental building under Constantine and later emperors.

Agricultural Shifts and Economic Reorganization

• A gradual shift toward localized economies and rural estate-based agriculture reflected adaptation to political instability. The emergence of self-sufficient estates formed the economic backbone for the later medieval manorial system.

Religious and Cultural Developments

Rise and Establishment of Christianity

• Christianity significantly expanded during this era, transitioning from persecution under Diocletian (303–313) to becoming the dominant religious force under Constantine and his successors.

• Saint Martin of Tours (c. 316–397) profoundly shaped regional Christianity through extensive missionary work and the establishment of monastic communities, embedding Christianity deeply into Gaul’s social fabric.

Intellectual Continuity Amidst Instability

• Cities like Bordeaux maintained vibrant intellectual life, nurturing classical scholarship and early Christian literature. Figures such as Ausonius of Bordeaux (active late 4th century) exemplified continued literary and intellectual pursuits despite widespread turmoil.

Long-Term Impact and Historical Significance

Between 244 and 387, Atlantic West Europe endured imperial fragmentation, frontier instability, and socio-economic disruption but also experienced substantial restructuring that laid critical foundations for Late Antiquity and early medieval society:

• Political decentralization paved the way for localized power structures, foreshadowing feudal development.

• Economic reorganization established self-sufficient rural estates as dominant economic units.

• Christianity’s entrenchment reshaped cultural and social identities, influencing future European civilization profoundly.

This transformative era marked the definitive departure from classical antiquity, creating the political, social, and cultural landscape that would define the region for centuries.

Diocletian’s Persecution of Christians: The Most Extensive in Roman History (303–311 CE)

Diocletian’s commitment to an activist government and his self-image as a restorer of Rome’s past glory led him to enforce state religious unity, viewing Christianity as a threat to Roman traditions and imperial stability. This culminated in the Great Persecution (303–311 CE), the most severe and widespread persecution of Christians in Roman history.

1. Diocletian’s Vision: Restoring Roman Religious Identity

• Diocletian sought to strengthen the empire by reviving traditional Roman religious practices and reinforcing pagan cults, particularly the imperial cult.
• Christianity, which had grown significantly by the late 3rd century, was increasingly seen as subversivebecause:
  • Christians refused to participate in state sacrifices and imperial worship.
  • Many Christian officials and soldiers openly practiced their faith, challenging Roman authority.
  • The church operated as a separate power structure, independent of imperial control.

2. The Great Persecution (303–311 CE): Imperial Decrees Against Christians

Diocletian, with encouragement from Galerius, issued a series of edicts aimed at suppressing Christianity:

• First Edict (February 303 CE)
  • Ordered the destruction of Christian churches and scriptures.
  • Banned Christian gatherings and removed Christians from public offices.
• Second Edict (Later in 303 CE)
  • Ordered the arrest of Christian clergy, forcing them to renounce their faith or face punishment.
• Third Edict (Late 303 CE)
  • Introduced amnesty for Christians who made sacrifices to Roman gods.
• Fourth Edict (304 CE)
  • Required all Roman citizens to offer sacrifices to the gods, effectively criminalizing Christianity.

These edicts led to widespread persecution, including:

• Imprisonment and execution of bishops and Christian leaders.
• Destruction of churches and confiscation of Christian property.
• Torture and forced apostasy as Christians were pressured to abandon their faith.

3. The Persecution’s Effectiveness and Its Limits

• The persecution was enforced most harshly in the Eastern Roman Empire, where Galerius and Maximian ruled.
• In the West, Constantius Chlorus (father of Constantine the Great) was more lenient, destroying churches but avoiding mass executions.
• Many Christians went underground, continuing their worship in secret gatherings.
• Despite the brutality, the persecution failed to eradicate Christianity, and in many cases, martyrdom strengthened the faith.

4. The End of the Persecution and the Rise of Constantine

• In 311 CE, Galerius issued the Edict of Toleration, acknowledging that the persecution had failed and granting Christians the right to worship openly.
• In 312 CE, Constantine the Great won the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, later attributing his victory to the Christian God.
• In 313 CE, the Edict of Milan, issued by Constantine and Licinius, fully legalized Christianity, marking a turning point in Roman religious policy.

5. Conclusion: A Failed Suppression That Strengthened Christianity

Diocletian’s persecution was the largest and most systematic effort to suppress Christianity, but it ultimately failed. Instead, it:

• Created Christian martyrs, solidifying Christian identity.
• Demonstrated the limits of imperial control, as Christianity continued to spread despite official repression.
• Set the stage for Constantine’s embrace of Christianity, leading to its eventual dominance as the imperial religion of Rome.

While Diocletian sought to restore Rome’s traditional religious order, his persecution inadvertently accelerated Christianity’s rise, marking the beginning of Rome’s transformation into a Christian empire.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (292–303 CE): Consolidation of Diocletian’s Reforms and Increased Stability

The era 292–303 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe sees the maturation and consolidation of Diocletian’s wide-ranging reforms. This period is marked by increased stability and centralized governance through the Tetrarchy, significant economic interventions, reinforced military defenses, and complex religious developments.

Strengthening of the Tetrarchy

Diocletian’s system of governance by four emperors—the Tetrarchy— becomes fully established, significantly enhancing imperial stability. The clear division of administrative responsibilities among two senior emperors (Augusti) and two junior emperors (Caesars) ensures more efficient management of provincial affairs, military campaigns, and administrative oversight.

Administrative Efficiency and Provincial Control

Diocletian’s restructuring of provincial administration proves effective during this era, improving governance through clearer bureaucratic hierarchies and more localized oversight. Smaller provincial units facilitate efficient tax collection, reduce corruption, and enhance regional stability and prosperity, reinforcing imperial authority and administrative cohesion.

Robust Military Defenses and Frontier Stability

Continuing Diocletian’s military policies, Rome’s frontier defenses become notably stronger and more sophisticated. Strategic fortifications, improved troop training, and systematic frontier surveillance reduce external threats significantly, ensuring sustained regional security and stability.

Economic Stability and Diocletian's Edict on Prices

In 301 CE, Diocletian issues his famous Edict on Maximum Prices, attempting to combat rampant inflation and stabilize the economy by setting price ceilings on goods and services. Though its success is limited, the Edict underscores Diocletian’s determined effort to address economic instability, contributing to temporary improvements in market conditions and economic predictability.

Heightened Christian Persecution

Diocletian intensifies religious persecution beginning around 303 CE, initiating the Great Persecution—the most severe crackdown on Christianity yet seen in the Roman Empire. Christian communities face widespread arrests, confiscations, and executions. Despite severe adversity, Christianity continues to grow and strengthen, demonstrating remarkable resilience and laying the groundwork for future transformation within the empire.

Cultural Resilience and Intellectual Vigor

Despite political and religious turbulence, cultural and intellectual activities flourish. Roman art, literature, and philosophical discourse continue robustly, reflecting a society adept at adapting to changing circumstances. Intellectual and cultural resilience highlights the ongoing vitality and complexity of Roman civilization in Mediterranean Southwest Europe.

Legacy of the Era

The era 292–303 CE consolidates the profound impacts of Diocletian’s reforms, significantly stabilizing and reorganizing the Roman Empire after decades of crisis. Diocletian’s rigorous administrative, military, and economic measures, coupled with the era’s complex religious dynamics, substantially shape Roman imperial structures, influencing developments that extend well beyond his reign.

The reconquest of Britain begins in 296.

With Maximian holding the Rhine frontier, Constantius divides his fleet into several divisions.

He leads one division himself from Bononia; another, sailing from Le Havre, is commanded by Asclepiodotus, prefect of the Praetorian Guard.

They land in the vicinity of Southampton and burn their ships.

The rebels are forced to retreat from the coast, but in doing so, fall into the hands of another division and are routed.

Allectus himself is killed in the battle, having removed all insignia in the hope that his body would not be identified.

A group of Roman troops, who had been separated from the main body by the fog during the channel crossing, catches up with the remnants of Allectus's men, mostly Franks, at Londinium (London), and massacres them.

Constantius himself, it seems, does not reach Britain until it is all over, and the panegyrist claims he was welcomed by the Britons as a liberator.

Diocletian's preference for activist government, combined with his self-image as a restorer of past Roman glory, presages the most pervasive persecution of Christians in Roman history.

Christians have often been scapegoats during the Roman Empire's Crisis of the third century, and when Diocletian at the beginning of the fourth century makes this persecution systematic, Christian refugee communities fleeing the chaos and persecution of these times form in Egypt at the edges of population centers, far enough away to be safe from Imperial scrutiny, but still close enough to have access to civilization.

Records from this time indicate that Christians often lived in tombs and trash heaps on the edges of major cities, more or less protected by their obscure status.

Christian hagiography venerates a Christian named George, a soldier of the Roman Empire, who in the manner of the mythical Pers reportedly saved a Libyan princess from a dragon and may have been martyred in Palestine under the persecutions initiated by Diocletian. (He will become one of the most venerated saints in the Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodox Churches and the patron saint of Canada, Catalonia, England, Ethiopia, Georgia, Greece, Montenegro, Portugal, Serbia, the cities of Istanbul, Ljubljana and Moscow, as well as a wide range of professions, organizations, and disease sufferers.)

Maximian (although he will long be viewed by future Christians as a persecutor of their religion) seems to have done no more than obediently execute in his part of the empire the first edict of Diocletian, which ordered the burning of the Scriptures and the closing of the churches.