Shammar
Nation | Active
100 CE to 2215 CE
The tribe of Shammar is a Qahtanite Arab tribe, descended from the ancient tribe of Tayy.
It is one of the largest and most influential Arab tribes, with an estimated around twelve million members in the world; three million in Iraq, over six and a half million in Saudi Arabia (concentrated in Ha'il), a Syrian population is thought to exceed a half a million, along with an unknown number in Jordan, Kuwait, and Qatar.
The current seat of the tribe's leadership is in the city of Mosul, in Northern Iraq.
In its "golden age", around 1850, the tribe rules much of central and northern Arabia from Riyadh to the frontiers of Syria and the vast area known as Al Jazira in Northern Iraq.
One of the early famous figures from the tribe is the legendary Hatim Al-Ta'i (Hatim of Tayy; died 578), a Christian Arab renowned for generosity and hospitality who figures in the Arabian Nights.
The early Islamic historical sources report that his son, Adiyy ibn Hatim, whom they sometimes refer to as the "king" of Tayy, converted to Islam before Muhammad's death.
Another figure from Tayy during this period is Zayd al-Khayr, a prominent member of Tayy who is said to have led Tayy's delegation to Muhammad accepting Islam.
The current leader of the Syrian Shammar is Sheikh Humaydi Daham al-Hadi, whose son Bandar al-Humaydi is military leader of al-Sanadid Forces.
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Both the Ottomans and the Safavids use Sunni and Shia Islam respectively to mobilize domestic support.
Thus, Iraq's Sunni population suffers immeasurably during the brief Safavid reign (1623-38), while Iraq's Shias will be excluded from power altogether during the longer period of Ottoman supremacy (1638-1916).
The Sunnis during the Ottoman period gain the administrative experience that will allow them to monopolize political power in the twentieth century.
The Sunnis are able to take advantage of new economic and educational opportunities while the Shias, frozen out of the political process, remain politically impotent and economically depressed.
The frequent conflicts with the Safavids have sapped the strength of the Ottoman Empire by the seventeenth century and have weakened its control over its provinces.
Tribal authority once again dominates in Iraq.
The nomadic population swells with the influx of Bedouin from Najd, in the Arabian Peninsula.
Bedouin raids on settled areas become impossible to curb.
The large and powerful Muntafiq tribal confederation takes shape in the interior, under the leadership of the Sunni Saadun family of Mecca.
The Shamman—one of the biggest tribal confederations of the Arabian Peninsula—enter the Syrian desert and clash with the `Anazzah confederation.
A new tribal confederation, the Bani Lam, takes root on the lower Tigris near Al Amarah.
The Kurdish Baban Dynasty emerges in the north and organizes Kurdish resistance.
The resistance makes it impossible for the Ottomans to maintain even nominal suzerainty over Iraqi Kurdistan (land of the Kurds).
Between 1625 and 1668, local shaykhs rule Al Basrah and the marshlands, home of the Madan (Marsh Arabs).
The powerful shaykhs basically ignore the Ottoman governor of Baghdad.
The reemergence in Iraq of the Mamluks, who begin asserting authority apart from the Ottomans in the early eighteenth century, temporarily reverses the cycle of tribal warfare and of deteriorating urban life in Iraq that had begun in the thirteenth century with the Mongol invasions.
Extending their rule first over Basra, the Mamluks eventually control the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys from the Persian Gulf to the foothills of Kurdistan.
The Mamluks are able administrators for the most part, and their rule is marked by political stability and by economic revival.
The greatest of the Mamluk leaders, Sulayman Pasha the Great (1780-1802), makes great strides in imposing the rule of law.
The last Mamluk leader, Dawüd Pasha (1816-31), initiates important modernization programs that include clearing canals, establishing industries, training a twenty-thousand-man army, and starting a printing press.
The Middle East: 1732–1743 CE
The Rise of Wahhabism and Al Saud
This era witnesses the foundational developments of Wahhabism, profoundly shaping future Arabian politics. Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab returns from scholarly travels across the Middle East to Najd, advocating a reformist Islamic doctrine aimed at purifying the faith from practices he perceives as idolatrous, particularly those prevalent among the Shia and local tribal traditions. Initially settling in Huraymila and then in Uyaynah, Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab gains initial support from local leaders but faces resistance due to his anti-Shia stance, especially from influential Shia centers like Al Hufuf. Forced to leave Uyaynah due to local pressures, he eventually settles in Ad Diriyah, establishing a crucial alliance with local ruler Muhammad ibn Saud, thereby laying the foundation for the future Saudi state.
Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab’s teachings, influenced by strict Hanbali principles and earlier reformist scholars such as Ibn Taymiyah, denounce popular Islamic practices like shrine visitation and the veneration of natural objects, branding them polytheistic. His followers identify themselves as Muwahhidun (Unitarians), although opponents label them derogatorily as Wahhabis. This ideological alliance between Abd al Wahhab and Muhammad ibn Saud significantly reshapes the religious and political landscape of the Arabian Peninsula.
Omani Instability and Persian Intervention
In Oman, internal strife continues to undermine Yarubid authority. Saif bin Sultan II, facing significant opposition from his cousin and rival Bal'arab bin Himyar, Imam of the Omani interior, seeks external aid to consolidate power. In 1737, Persian forces under Nader Shah, invited by Saif, decisively defeat Bal'arab bin Himyar in Az Zahirah, briefly restoring Saif bin Sultan II's rule. However, Saif's indulgent lifestyle and poor governance quickly alienate tribal leaders once again.
In 1742, Sultan bin Murshid, another Yaruba family member, emerges as a political figure, leading a rebellion that forces Saif to request further Persian aid. The Persians exploit this instability, capturing strategic forts around Muscat and Sohar. Saif bin Sultan II, betrayed by his Persian allies, dies in 1743, and Sultan bin Murshid is mortally wounded under the walls of Sohar. Bal'arab bin Himyar once again emerges as Imam amidst continuing factional conflict.
Persian Ascendancy under Nader Shah
This period marks significant military and political expansion by Nader Shah of Persia, profoundly reshaping regional dynamics. In 1736, Nader Shah formally ascends to the throne of Persia, initiating a series of aggressive campaigns aimed at restoring Persian dominance across its historical territories. In 1738, Persian forces recapture the vital city of Baghdad, briefly restoring Persian rule over the region and dramatically altering the power balance between Persia and the Ottoman Empire. However, intense conflict and resistance eventually force a Persian withdrawal, stabilizing Ottoman control once again by 1743.
Nader Shah's expansionist ambitions are not confined to Iraq alone. His strategic engagements in the Persian Gulf and Oman reflect broader geopolitical goals of securing trade routes and asserting Persian influence. His incursions significantly impact Omani internal politics and further weaken Ottoman authority throughout the Middle East.
Ottoman Administration and Tribal Power Dynamics
The period sees continued decentralization within Ottoman territories, notably evident in the rising autonomy of tribal groups in Iraq and the Arabian Peninsula. Ottoman central authority in these regions weakens considerably, creating an environment in which tribal confederations and local dynasties, such as the Muntafiq and Bani Lam in Iraq and the Kurdish Baban Dynasty in the north, wield significant power. Tribal authority dominates, exacerbated by the influx of Bedouin tribes like the Shammar and 'Anazzah. This tribal fragmentation continues to challenge Ottoman control and contributes to the overall weakening of centralized governance.
Legacy of the Era
Between 1732 and 1743, critical ideological foundations of the future Saudi state are established through the Wahhabi-Saudi alliance. Simultaneously, Oman experiences prolonged internal conflict and Persian intervention, marking the decline of Yarubid rule. Nader Shah’s brief occupation of Baghdad underscores the shifting balance of power between Persia and the Ottoman Empire. Meanwhile, tribal autonomy increases across Ottoman territories, setting the stage for a fragmented political landscape that will characterize the region in subsequent decades.
Iraq's Mamluk period ends in 1831, when a severe flood and plague devastates Baghdad, enabling the Ottoman sultan, Mahmud II, to reassert Ottoman sovereignty over Iraq.
Ottoman rule is unstable; Baghdad, for example, will have more than ten governors between 1831 and 1869.