Atlantic West Europe (532–675): From Merovingian Ascendancy to Aristocratic Dominance and Monastic Influence

Between 532 and 675, Atlantic West Europe—spanning Neustria, Austrasia, Aquitaine, Burgundy, Brittany, and surrounding regions—experienced profound transformations. This era began with the height of Merovingian rule, characterized by territorial unification, and ended with the rise of powerful aristocratic factions, the growing influence of the Church, and the foundations of the future Carolingian dynasty.

Political and Military Developments

Merovingian Unification and Expansion (532–561)

• Chlothar I (r. 511–561) reunified the Frankish kingdoms, extending Merovingian control over Neustria, Austrasia, Burgundy, and Aquitaine.

• The conquest of Burgundy (532–534) was a critical step, integrating the Rhône-Saône region into Frankish domains and ensuring long-term Frankish influence there.

Fragmentation and Internal Rivalries (561–613)

• Following Chlothar I’s death (561), Frankish unity fractured into multiple kingdoms (Neustria, Austrasia, Burgundy, Aquitaine), each ruled by Chlothar’s descendants.

• Intense rivalry between Neustrian and Austrasian factions led to frequent warfare, weakening central authority but fostering strong regional identities.

• Brunhilda of Austrasia (d. 613) emerged as a formidable political figure, leading to extensive power struggles with Neustria’s Queen Fredegund.

Reunification Under Chlothar II and Dagobert I (613–639)

• Chlothar II (r. 613–629) reestablished Merovingian unity, stabilizing royal governance by issuing the Edict of Paris (614), enhancing aristocratic and episcopal power.

• His son, Dagobert I (r. 629–639), strengthened Frankish control, notably in Aquitaine, Brittany, and along the Rhine, marking the height of Merovingian royal prestige.

Aristocratic Dominance and Royal Decline (639–675)

• Dagobert’s successors faced rapid decline in royal authority, overshadowed by aristocratic factions led by mayors of the palace.

• Ebroin, Neustrian mayor (658–673, 675–680), wielded enormous power, while in Austrasia, Pepin of Herstalrose (from 675), laying the groundwork for Carolingian ascendancy.

• Brittany and Aquitaine drifted into semi-autonomy, ruled by regional dukes and princes, further weakening Merovingian control.

Economic and Social Developments

Agricultural Expansion and Landholding Patterns

• Increased cultivation and land-clearance activities, particularly in the Loire and Seine valleys, boosted agricultural productivity.

• Powerful aristocratic families dominated vast estates, forming the precursors of later feudal lordships.

Trade and Urban Networks

• Trade continued along the Loire, Rhine, and Seine rivers, connecting inland markets with coastal trade hubs.

• Brittany and Aquitaine fostered maritime trade connections with the British Isles and Iberia, enhancing regional economies.

Rise of Aristocratic Estates

• The proliferation of large, self-sufficient villae (estates) reinforced the local power of aristocratic landowners.

• These estates became significant economic and political centers, especially as royal authority waned.

Religious and Cultural Developments

Expansion of Christianity and Monasticism

• Monastic movements, inspired initially by Columbanus and Irish missionaries, led to the founding of influential monasteries such as Luxeuil (c.590), Saint-Denis, Saint-Wandrille, and Corbie.

• Monasteries played crucial roles as centers of education, manuscript production, and cultural preservation.

Church Influence and Synods

• Church councils, such as Council of Orléans (511, 533) and Council of Paris (614), shaped ecclesiastical law and governance, significantly influencing secular affairs.

• Bishops and abbots increasingly exerted political authority, reinforcing the Church's role as a stable institution amid political upheaval.

Art, Architecture, and Intellectual Life

• Merovingian art flourished, blending Gallo-Roman and Germanic traditions, especially in metalwork and illuminated manuscripts.

• Religious architecture, notably basilicas and monasteries, proliferated across the region, laying foundations for the later Carolingian cultural revival.

Long-term Consequences and Significance

By 675, Atlantic West Europe had transitioned significantly:

• The Merovingian dynasty, having achieved territorial consolidation earlier in the age, had lost much of its political power to dominant aristocratic families.

• The rise of influential mayors of the palace—particularly in Austrasia—set the stage for the Carolingian dynasty's emergence.

• Monasticism profoundly reshaped religious, cultural, and intellectual landscapes, preserving classical heritage and facilitating cultural continuity through an era of political turbulence.

• Economic and social foundations developed through agricultural expansion, trade networks, and powerful regional aristocracies laid essential groundwork for the subsequent Carolingian reforms and the later medieval transformation of Europe.

This transformative era from 532 to 675 thus marked the end of classical late antiquity in Atlantic West Europe, ushering in the structural and cultural developments that defined the early medieval landscape.

Dagobert I Secures His Realm and Expels Non-Converted Jews

Following the death of his half-brother Charibert II in 632 CE, Dagobert I consolidates power, securing his rule through diplomacy, military campaigns, and religious policies. His reign marks the last strong Merovingian kingship before the decline of royal authority in favor of the Mayors of the Palace.

1. Diplomatic Alliance with the Byzantine Empire

• Dagobert strengthens Frankish diplomacy by forming a friendship treaty with Emperor Heraclius of Byzantium.
• This alliance provides mutual strategic benefits:
  • Heraclius gains Frankish support against the advancing Muslim forces in the east.
  • Dagobert gains recognition as the dominant Western European ruler, reinforcing his legitimacy and authority.

2. Military Campaigns: Securing Frankish Borders

To stabilize and expand his realm, Dagobert wages three significant military campaigns:

• Defeat of the Gascons (Vascones) in the Pyrenees
  • Dagobert subjugates the Basque tribes, reinforcing Frankish control over Gascony and the southwestern frontier.
• War Against the Bretons
  • Dagobert defeats the Bretons, who had long resisted Frankish rule in western Gaul.
• Eastern Campaign Against the Slavs
  • Facing Slavic incursions along the Frankish eastern frontier, Dagobert leads a campaign against them, securing Austrasia’s borderlands.

These successful military operations reinforce Dagobert’s image as a strong Merovingian king, ensuring the stability of the Frankish realm.

3. Forced Conversions and the Expulsion of Jews

• Encouraged by Emperor Heraclius, Dagobert issues an ultimatum to the Jews:
  • Convert to Christianity or face exile.
• This policy leads to the expulsion of all non-converted Jews from Frankish lands, marking one of the first large-scale forced conversions or expulsions of Jews in medieval Europe.
• The edict aligns with Heraclius’ own anti-Jewish policies, as the Byzantine emperor had recently blamed the Jews for supporting Persian invasions in the East.
• This breaks the relative tolerance of previous Frankish rulers, marking a shift toward greater religious uniformity under royal and ecclesiastical authority.

4. The Decline of Royal Authority After Dagobert

• While Dagobert secures the realm militarily and diplomatically, his reign marks the last period of strong Merovingian kingship.
• After his death in 639 CE, the Mayors of the Palace begin to dominate Frankish politics, leading to the emergence of the "do-nothing kings" (rois fainéants).

Conclusion: The Last Strong Merovingian King

Dagobert I’s reign is marked by military victories, diplomatic alliances, and religious enforcement. By securing alliances with Byzantium, defeating regional opponents, and enforcing Christian uniformity, he strengthens the Frankish kingdom, though his policies—especially his anti-Jewish decree—foreshadow the rise of religious persecution in medieval Europe. His death in 639 CE paves the way for the decline of Merovingian royal authority, setting the stage for the Carolingian takeover in the following century.

Charibert II of Aquitaine and the Subjugation of the Basques

During his brief reign (629–632 CE), Charibert II of Aquitaine consolidates Frankish control over southern Gaul, particularly by defeating the Basques and incorporating Novempopulania into his kingdom as the Duchy of Vasconia. His rule also strengthens Frankish ties with the Gascons through his marriage to Gisela, daughter of Amand, Ruler of the Gascons.

1. Marriage to Gisela and the Frankish-Gascon Alliance

• Charibert II marries Gisela, the daughter of Amand, a Gascon leader, securing a political alliance with the Gascons.
• This marriage helps reinforce Frankish dominance in the southwestern regions, reducing local resistance to his rule.
• Through this alliance, Charibert gains military and political support from Gascon nobles, ensuring a stronger hold over Aquitaine.

2. The Campaign Against the Basques and the Creation of Vasconia

• The Basques (Vascones) had long resisted Frankish rule, engaging in raids and guerrilla warfare in the Pyrenean frontier.
• Charibert’s forces systematically subdue the Basque resistance, gradually asserting full control over Novempopulania.
• Once conquered, the region is formally organized as the Duchy of Vasconia, a semi-autonomous Frankish vassal state that will continue to play a role in later medieval conflicts.
• This marks one of the earliest attempts by the Franks to govern the Basque frontier, a challenge that will persist for centuries.

3. The Short-Lived Success of Charibert’s Rule

• Despite his military success, Charibert II’s reign is cut short in 632 CE when he dies under mysterious circumstances, possibly assassinated on orders from his half-brother Dagobert I.
• His infant son, Chilperic of Toulouse, is also killed, leading to the dissolution of his independent rule.
• After Charibert’s death, Dagobert I reabsorbs Aquitaine and Vasconia into the Frankish realm, though Basque resistance will continue to challenge Frankish control.

Conclusion: A Brief but Pivotal Reign

Charibert II’s reign marks a significant step in the Frankish expansion into southwestern Gaul. By:

• Marrying Gisela to strengthen ties with the Gascons,
• Subduing the Basques through military campaigns, and
• Organizing Novempopulania into the Duchy of Vasconia,

he temporarily secures Frankish authority over the region. However, his early death in 632 CE allows Dagobert I to reunify the Frankish kingdom, though Basque resistance will persist well into the medieval era.

The Death of Charibert II and the Reabsorption of Aquitaine by Dagobert I (632 CE)

On April 8, 632 CE, Charibert II, the King of Aquitaine, dies at Blaye, possibly assassinated on the orders of his half-brother, Dagobert I. Shortly thereafter, his infant son, Chilperic of Toulouse, is also killed, effectively eliminating his bloodline and bringing an end to the independent rule of Aquitaine.

Following these events, Aquitaine and Gascony are reabsorbed into Dagobert’s realm, making him the most powerful Merovingian king in the West.

1. The Death of Charibert II and His Son

• Charibert dies at Blaye under suspicious circumstances, possibly due to an assassination orchestrated by Dagobert I to remove a rival claimant to power.
• His infant son, Chilperic of Toulouse, is also killed soon after, ensuring that Charibert’s dynasty is completely extinguished.
• Both Charibert and Chilperic are buried in the Basilica of Saint-Romain at Blaye, marking the final end of their short-lived rule over Aquitaine.

2. Dagobert I Becomes the Supreme Merovingian King

• With Charibert’s death and the collapse of his dynasty, Aquitaine and Gascony revert to Dagobert I, who annexes them into his already vast realm.
• This makes Dagobert the most powerful Merovingian ruler of his time, briefly achieving a level of unity not seen since Clovis I.

3. The Legacy of Charibert II’s Reign

• Though short-lived, Charibert’s rule marked the first attempt at establishing an independent Aquitaine within the Frankish kingdom.
• His death reinforces the pattern of brutal Merovingian succession struggles, where assassination and dynastic purges are common tools of power consolidation.
• The temporary unity under Dagobert foreshadows future divisions, as Aquitaine will later regain autonomy under the Carolingians.

Conclusion: The Lasting Impact of Charibert’s Death

The assassination of Charibert II and his son in 632 CE marks a turning point in Merovingian history, as Dagobert I emerges as the most dominant ruler in Western Europe. However, while Aquitaine is reintegrated into the Frankish realm, the region’s independent identity remains strong, setting the stage for future separatist movements in southern Gaul.

Felix, a patrician of Toulouse, unites under his rule the duchies of Vasconia and Aquitaine.

Evidence suggests that his duchy was a recreation of the old kingdom of Charibert II.

The last known duke before Felix was Boggis.

Therefore, in Felix's time Vasconia forms a part of Aquitaine, into which it had been incorporated following the successful suppression of a rebellion in 645.

It is disputable whether Felix was a sovereign in his own right over a state of his own creation or a Merovingian official governing a constituent kingdom of the Frankish realm.

It is also argued that the Basques were the allies of the Aquitainians and not their subjects.Felix's duchy encompasses Bordeaux, Vasconia (the Novempopulania and its poorly defined borderlands to the south and northeast) and Narbonensis (including Toulouse), but does not extend to the districts along the Mediterranean coast, which remain under the control of the Visigoths, or to the Loire, as it will in later ages.

Pepin the Short’s Campaign Against Aquitaine (759–760)

After securing Narbonne in 759, Pepin the Short, now firmly established as King of the Franks, shifts his focus to Aquitaine. Though his father, Charles Martel, had subjugated Aquitaine in 742, the region had long been neglected by Frankish rulers, allowing it to develop semi-independence under its own dukes.

Conflict with Duke Waifer (760)

In 760, Pepin demands that Duke Waifer of Aquitaine hand over political refugees who had sought asylum at his court and return lands claimed by the Church. This request is not just a matter of diplomacy; it is part of Pepin’s broader effort to restore royal authority over Aquitaine and curb the power of its ruling house.

When Waifer refuses, Pepin marches south, launching a military campaign into Aquitaine. His army ravages Berry and ...

...the Auvergne, two key border regions between Frankish-controlled Francia and Aquitanian-held lands.

This marks the beginning of a prolonged war, as Pepin seeks to bring Aquitaine fully under Carolingian rule, erasing its remaining autonomy and establishing direct Frankish control over the region.

The 761 Aquitanian Campaign: Frankish Victory in the Auvergne

In 761, as Pepin the Short advances into Aquitaine, Duke Waifer seeks to counter the Frankish offensive by ordering his border counts to mount a counterattack against Frankish-held Burgundy. He commands Count Chunibert of Bourges and Count Blandinus of the Auvergne to assemble their forces for an assault on Chalon-sur-Saône, a strategic stronghold on the northeastern frontier of Aquitaine.

Composition of the Aquitanian Army

The army assembled for this campaign likely consists primarily of local levies, as Gascon (Basque) warriors—a key professional core of Waifer's forces—are not mentioned in this engagement. The continuator of the Chronicle of Fredegar, who is otherwise careful to document Gascon participation, omits them here, suggesting that this force lacks the experienced Vascones mercenaries who typically form Waifer’s elite troops.

The Frankish Counteroffensive and the Fall of the Auvergne

Though the Aquitanian forces ravage parts of Burgundy, Pepin’s response is swift. He pushes the invaders backand goes on the offensive, capturing key fortresses in Auvergne, including:

• Bourbon
• Chantelle
• Clermont

Count Blandinus is forced to surrender, signaling a major setback for Waifer's resistance. The garrison at Bourbon is specifically identified by the continuator of Fredegar as the “men of Waifer” (homines Waiofarii), reinforcing that these fortresses were essential to Aquitanian defense.

The Treaty and Frankish Control in the Auvergne

By the end of the campaign, Pepin secures permanent control over many fortresses in the Auvergne through a treaty, marking a turning point in the war. With the loss of these strategic strongholds, Aquitaine’s defenses are significantly weakened, bringing Waifer one step closer to defeat and Frankish rule one step closer to full consolidation.

Pepin’s Conquest of Berry and Bourges (762–763)

As the Frankish-Aquitanian War continues, Pepin the Short intensifies his campaign against Duke Waifer of Aquitaine, aiming to dismantle his power and fully incorporate Aquitaine into the Frankish realm.

In 762, Pepin captures Berry and Bourges, two key strongholds on the northern frontier of Aquitaine. Bourges, a major fortified city and regional center, had long been a stronghold of Aquitanian resistance, making its fall a significant blow to Waifer’s authority.

The following year, in 763, Pepin consolidates his gains, further securing control over Berry and the surrounding fortresses. With these victories, the Frankish advance into Aquitaine accelerates, as Waifer loses vital defensive positions and finds his realm increasingly fragmented and vulnerable.

The capture of Berry and Bourges marks a turning point in the war, setting the stage for the final phase of Pepin’s conquest of Aquitaine.

Waifer’s Pleas for Peace and the Bavarian Distraction (760–765)

As Pepin the Short's relentless war of conquest devastates Aquitaine, Duke Waifer seeks to end hostilities and retain his rule, offering peace terms at least twice, in 760 and again in 765. However, Pepin, determined to achieve total victory, refuses to negotiate, pressing forward with his systematic campaign to eliminate Aquitanian autonomy.

Despite his aggressive strategy, Pepin’s conquest of Aquitaine is temporarily delayed by events in the east. In 765, Duke Tassilo III of Bavaria, a nominal Frankish vassal, rebels against Frankish overlordship, forcing Pepin to shift his focus toward the rebellious Bavarians. This distraction allows Waifer to remain in power, though his position is increasingly precarious.

While the Bavarian revolt diverts Pepin’s attention, it does not permanently halt the war in Aquitaine. With Waifer’s resources dwindling and Frankish control expanding, it is only a matter of time before Pepin resumes his campaign to crush the last pockets of Aquitanian resistance.