Ar-Raqqah Ar-Raqqah Syria

Ali, after defeating the revolt of 656, immediately faces a new revolt fomented by the champions of the Umayyad cause, led by Uthman's cousin Muawiyah, governor of Syria, who believes Ali was involved in the murder of Uthman.

Ali responds by invading Syria.

The two armies meet in May 657 along the Euphrates River at Siffin (near present Ar-Raqqah, Syria) where they engage in an indecisive succession of skirmishes, truces, and battles, culminating in July with the legendary appearance of Mawiyah's troops with copies of the Qur'an impaled on their lances—supposedly a sign to let God's word decide the conflict.

In fact, this second rebellion is on the point of being crushed when Muawiyah averts defeat by proposing arbitration.

'Ali sees through the stratagem but is forced by his army to accept adjudication by umpires, which greatly weakens his position.

'Ali delegates Abu-Musa al-Ashaari as his representative, while Muawiyah sends 'Amr ibn al-'As.

The two men, basing their conversations on the Qur'an and the traditions (Hadith) of the Prophet and in the presence of witnesses, are to decide whether Uthman had been guilty of abusing the divine law.

If he had sinned and his murder was justified, then Ali's position as caliph will be secure; a verdict of innocence, however, will justify Muawiyah's attempts at vengeance and dislodge Ali.

…Ar Raqqah at the middle Euphrates.

Here he will spend twelve years, most of his reign.

Only once will he return to Baghdad for a short visit.

Several reasons might have influenced the decision to move to ar-Raqqa.

It is close to the border with the Empire.

The communication lines via the Euphrates to Baghdad and via the Balikh river to the north and via Palmyra to Damascus are excellent.

The agriculture is flourishing to support the new Caliphal center, and from Raqqa, any rebellion in Syria and the middle Euphrates area could be controlled.

Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani pictures in his anthology of poems the splendid life in his court.

In ar-Raqqah, the Barmakids will manage the fate of the empire, and there both heirs, al-Amin and al-Ma'mun will grow up.

Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid declares, in the so-called Meccan Document of 802, that his two sons, Muhammed al-Amin and Allah al-Ma'mun, should rule the Muslim empire after his death, with the imperial title held by al-Amin and the rule of Khorasan and the eastern half of the caliphate under al-Ma'mun.

Nikephoros I, on becoming emperor after Irene was deposed, had refused to pay tribute to Harun, saying that Irene should have been receiving the tribute the whole time.

News of this angers Harun, who writes a message on the back of the Roman emperor's letter and says,

"In the name of God the most merciful, From Amir al-Mu'minin Harun al-Rashid, commander of the faithful, to Nikephoros, dog of the Romans.

Thou shalt not hear, thou shalt behold my reply".

Harun recognizes the existence of the two different politico-religious trends by assigning Iraq and the western provinces to his son Muhammad al-Amin, the heir apparent, and the eastern provinces to the second in succession, his son al-Ma'mun.

The former is the son of the Arab princess Zubaydah, a niece of al-Mansur, the second 'Abbasid caliph, and after 803 has al-Fadl ibn ar-Rabi' as tutor.

His half brother Al-Ma'mun, the elder by six months, is the son of an Iranian concubine and after 803 has as tutor a Barmakid protégé, al-Fadl ibn Sahl.

One of the founding fathers of the Hanafi school of law, Muḥammad ash-Shaibānī, chief qadi (judge) in Ar-Raqqah and a leader of the movement towards systemetizing the Sharia, dies in 804.