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Atahualpa, also spelled Atahuallpa, who lives from 1502 to 1533, is the thirteenth and last emperor of the Inca.
Victorious in a devastating civil war with his half brother, only to be captured, held for ransom, and then executed by the ruthless conquistador Francisco Pizarro, Atahulapa is described by contemporary Spanish chroniclers as fair-skinned and red-haired.
Atahualpa has strengthened his army following this victory; he continues south into his brother's land, winning every encounter.
Entering Cajamarca, he adds to his numbers.
He first tries peaceful means to gain loyalty from Huáscar’s men; where this fails, he becomes extremely violent, murdering large numbers and scaring the survivors into surrender.
One report described how Atahualpa massacred the Cañari tribesmen because they pledged allegiance to Huáscar.
When he finally arrives in Cajamarca, Atahualpa sends the majority of his army ahead, led by his head generals, while he stays in the safety of the city and explores rumors that the Spaniards are entering the land.
Atahualpa is saluted as a hero; when recapturing Cajamarca, making camp outside the city with some forty thousand troops while Chalcuchimac and Quizquiz chase Huáscar’s army south.
With a disastrous northern campaign, Huáscar has not only lost his best generals and many soldiers, but his army is shocked and demoralized.
Atahualpa, following the defeat of his brother, Huáscar, has been resting in the Sierra of northern Peru in the thermal baths near Cajamarca, known today as the Inca Baths.
Cinquinchara, after traveling with the Spanish, returns to Atahualpa; they discuss whether or not the Spanish men are gods.
Cinquinchara decides they are men because he has seen them eat, drink, dress, and have relations with women.
He has seen them produce no miracles.
Cinquinchara informs Atahualpa that they are small in number, about one hundred and seventy to one hundred and eighty men, and had bound the Indian captives with "iron ropes".
When Atahualpa asks what to do about the strangers, Cinquinchara says that they should be killed because they are evil thieves who take whatever they want, and are supai cuna or "devils".
He recommends trapping the men inside of their sleeping quarters and burning them to death.
He had known of the arrival of foreign invaders for several months; it is not clear why he did not order their obliteration before they could penetrate into the heart of the empire.
After a march of almost two months, Pizarro arrives in Cajamarca and summons Atahualpa from the nearby thermal baths known today as the Banos del Inca.
Reluctantly, accompanied by several thousands of his best troops, Atahualpa goes to Cajamarca's central plaza, where he is met, not by the conquistadors, but by their chaplain, Fray Vicente de Valverde, who calls upon the Inca emperor to submit to the representatives of the Spanish crown and the Christian god.
Atahualpa replies disparagingly, and, upon his throwing a Christian prayer book to the ground in contempt, concealed Spanish soldiers open fire, killing thousands of Atahualpa's defenders and taking the Inca emperor captive.
This slaughter, called "the decisive battle" of the conquest of Peru by historian Hubert Herring, takes place on November 16, 1532.
A panic-stricken Atahualpa, fearing that Pizarro might be planning to depose him in favor of his rival brother, summons Huascar, at this time imprisoned in Cuzco, to Cajamarca, then orders him to be executed along with hundreds of Huascar's nearest of kin.
It serves the Spaniards' purposes to allow Atahualpa the freedom, from his cell, to command his forces.
Thus continues the rapid annihilation, through a vicious civil war that now overlaps with the Spanish conquest, of the army and leadership of one of the great polities of modern history.
Pizarro is not planning to depose Atahualpa, of course, but to execute him.
First, however, he has Atahualpa fill his cell, once with gold, then twice with silver (estimated at four thousand eight hundred and fifty kilograms of gold and nine thousand seven hundred kilograms of silver), supposedly as ransom for his release.
Instead the Spaniards garrotte Atahualpa on August 29, 1533, following a mock trial at which he is convicted of every charge that Pizarro can invent for the occasion.
Having deprived the Inca empire of leadership, Pizarro and another conquistador, Hernando de Soto, move south to Cuzco, the heart of Tawantinsuyu, which they capture in November 1533; they then lead their men in an orgy of looting, pillaging, and torture in search of more precious metals.
Atahualpa's army has grown during the course of the civil war to two hundred and fifty thousand men, all the strength of the Empire; at least a hundred thousand have killed on the opposing side.
The victorious generals have sent word north by chasqui messenger to Atahualpa, who had moved south from Quitu to the royal resort springs outside he Peruvian highland town and regional capital of Cajamarca.
The messenger arrives with news of the final victory on the same day that Pizarro and his small band of adventurers, together with some Indian allies, descend from the Andes into the town of Cajamarca.
The confrontation at Cajamarca is the culmination of a months-long struggle involving espionage, subterfuge, and diplomacy between Pizarro and the Inca via their respective envoys.
The victor receives the invaders from a position of immense strength.
Encamped along the heights of Cajamarca with a large force of battle-tested troops fresh from their victories, the Inca feel they have little to fear from Pizarro's tiny army, however exotic its dress and weaponry.
In a calculated show of goodwill, Atahualpa has lured the adventurers deep into the heart of his mountain empire where any potential threat can be isolated and met with massive force.
The town itself has been largely emptied of its two thousand inhabitants, upon the approach of the small Spanish force, guided by an Inca noble sent by Atahualpa as an envoy.
Arriving to Cajamarca on Nov 15, 1532, Pizarro has a force of just one hundred and ten foot soldiers, sixty-seven cavalry, three arquebuses, and two falconets.
He sends Hernando Pizarro and Hernando de Soto to meet with Atahualpa in his camp.
Atahualpa agrees to meet Pizarro in his Cajamarca plaza fortress the next day.
The book History Of The Conquest Of Peru, written by nineteenth century author William H. Prescott, recounts the dilemma in which the Spanish force now finds itself.
Any assault on the Inca armies overlooking the valley would be suicidal.
Retreat is equally out of the question, because any show of weakness might undermine their air of invincibility, and would invite pursuit and closure of the mountain passes.
Once the great stone fortresses dotting their route of escape are garrisoned, argues Pizarro, they will prove impregnable.
However, to do nothing, he adds, is no better, since prolonged contact with the natives will surely erode the fears of Spanish supernatural powers that keep them at bay.
Pizarro gathers his officers on the evening of November 15 and outlines a scheme that recalls memories of Cortés' exploits in Mexico in its audacity: he will capture the emperor amid his own armies.
Since this cannot realistically be accomplished in an open field, Pizarro has invited the Inca to Cajamarca.
Hernando de Soto, as the expedition's captain of horse, becomes the first European to make contact with Atahualpa.
On the afternoon on November 16, Atahualpa leads a procession of the greater part of his forces, but Pizarro's fortunes change dramatically when Atahualpa announces that most of his host will set up camp outside the walls of the city.
He requests that accommodations be provided only for himself and his retinue, which will forsake its weapons in a sign of amity and absolute confidence.
Shortly before sunset, Atahualpa leaves the armed warriors who had accompanied him, on an open meadow about half a mile outside Cajamarca.
His immediate party still numbers over seven thousand but are unarmed except for small battle axes intended for show.
Atahualpa's attendants are richly dressed in what are apparently ceremonial garments.
Many wear gold or silver discs on their heads and the main party is preceded by a group wearing livery of checkered colors, who sing while sweeping the roadway in front of Atahualpa.
The Inca himself is carried in a litter lined with parrot feathers and partly covered in silver, carried by eighty Inca courtiers of high rank in vivid blue clothing.
Atahualpa's intention appears to have been to impress the small Spanish force with this display of splendor; he has no anticipation of an ambush.
The Spaniards have concealed themselves within the buildings surrounding the empty plaza at the center of the town.
Infantry and horsemen are concealed in the alleyways that open onto this square.
Spanish infantry are deployed to guard the entrances to a stone building in the center of the square while men armed with arquebuses and four small cannon take their place within it.
Pizarro orders his men to remain silent and hidden until the guns are fired.
During the hours of waiting, tension rise among the greatly outnumbered Spanish; Pedro Pizarro will recall that many of his fellows urinated out of sheer terror.
Upon entering the square, the leading nobles in attendance on Atahualpa divide their ranks to enable his litter to be carried to the center, where all stop.
A native courtier carrying a banner approaches the building where the artillery is concealed, while Atahualpa, surprised at seeing no Spanish, calls out an inquiry.
After a brief pause, Friar Vincente de Valverde, accompanied by an interpreter, emerges from the building where Pizarro is lodged.
Carrying a cross and a missal, the friar passes through the rows of attendants who had spread out to allow the Inca's litter to reach the center of the square.
Valverde approaches the Inca, announces himself as the emissary of God and the Spanish throne, and demands that he accept Catholicism as his faith and Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor as his sovereign ruler.
Atahualpa is equally insulted and confused by Valverde's words.
Although Atahualpa had already determined that he has no intention of conceding to the dictates of the Spanish, according to chronicler Garcilaso de la Vega, he does attempt a brusque, bemused inquiry into the details of the Spaniards' faith and their king, which quickly bogs down in poorly translated semantics and increases the tension of all the participants.
Spanish sources differ as to the specific event which initiated combat, but all agree it was a spontaneous decision following the breakdown of negotiations (such as they were) with Atahualpa.
Titu Cusi Yupanqui (1529–1571), son of Manco II and a nephew of Atahualpa, will dictate the only Inca account of the events leading up to the battle.
According to Titu Cusi, Atahualpa had received "two Viracochas", Pizarro and de Soto, at a date not specified "many days" before the battle, offering them a golden cup containing ceremonial chicha.
"The Spaniard poured it out."
The Spaniards then gave Atahualpa a letter (or book) which they said was quillca (writing) of God and of the Spanish king.
Offended by the wasting of the chicha, Atahualpa threw the "letter or whatever it was" on the ground, telling them to leave.
Atahualpa had arrived at Cajamarca with "no weapons for battle or harnesses for defense," although they did carry tomes (knives) and lassos for hunting llamas.
The Spanish approached and told Atahualpa that Virococha had ordered them to tell the Inca who they were.
Atahualpa listened then gave one a gold cup of chicha which was not drunk and given no attention at all.
Furious, Atahualpa stood and yelled "If you disrespect me, I will also disrespect you", and said he would kill them, at which the Spanish attacked.
Titu Cusi's only mention of a Bible being presented and then tossed to the ground is restricted to the encounter which took place before the battle, an omission that has been explained as due either to its relative insignificance to the Inca or to confusion between the events of the two days.
His account of the battle itself is heavily influenced by Inca mythology and ritual and is not considered a reliable account.
At the signal to attack, the Spaniards unleash gunfire at the vulnerable mass of soldiers and courtiers and surge forward in a concerted action.
The effect is devastating and the shocked and unarmed defenders offer little resistance.
The Spanish forces use a cavalry charge against their enemies, in combination with gunfire from cover (the defenders also have never encountered firearms before) combined with the ringing bells on the horses to frighten them.
The first target of the Spanish attack is Atahualpa and his top commanders.
Pizarro rushes at Atahualpa on horseback, but the Inca remains motionless.
The Spanish sever the hands or arms of the attendants carrying Atahualpa's litter to force them to drop it so they can reach him.
The Spanish are astounded that the attendants ignore their wounds and use their stumps or remaining hands to hold it up until several are killed and the litter slumps.
Atahualpa remains sitting on the litter while a large number of his attendants rush to place themselves between the litter and the Spanish, deliberately allowing themselves to be killed.
While his men are cutting down Atahualpa's attendants, Pizarro rides through them to where a Spanish foot soldier has pulled the Inca from his litter.
While he is doing so, other soldiers also reach the litter and one attempts to kill Atahualpa.
Recognizing the value of the Emperor as a hostage, Pizarro blocks the attack and receives a sword wound to his hand in consequence.
The main Inca force, which have retained their weapons but remain outside Cajamarca, scatter in confusion as the survivors of those who had accompanied Atahualpa flee from the square, breaking down a fifteen-foot length of wall in the process.
Atahualpa's warriors are veterans of his recent northern campaigns and constitute the professional core of the Inca army, seasoned warriors who outnumber the Spaniards more than forty-five to one (eight thousand to one hundred and sixty-eight).
However, the shock of the Spanish attack—coupled with the spiritual significance of losing the Sapa Inca and most of his commanders in one fell swoop—apparently shatters the army's morale, throwing their ranks into terror and initiating a massive rout.
There is no evidence that any of the main Inca force attempted to engage the Spaniards in Cajamarca after the success of the initial ambush.
The Spanish suffer no losses.
De Soto is a driving force in the Spaniards' victory
The Spaniards sack the Inca army camp the following day, finding great treasures of gold, silver, and emeralds.
Atahualpa, noticing their lust for precious metals, offers to fill a large room about twenty-two feet (6.7 meters) long and seventeen feet (5.2 meters) wide up to a height of eight feet (2.4 meters) once with gold and twice with silver within two months.
It is commonly believed that Atahualpa offered this ransom to regain his freedom; however, it seems likelier that he did so to avoid being killed, as none of the early chroniclers mention any commitment by the Spaniards to free Atahualpa once the metals were delivered.
Francisco Xerez had arrived in the New World on 1514 under the expedition that Ferdinand II of Aragon had sent under the guidance of Pedrarias Dávila.
The expedition had landed in the city of Santa María la Antigua del Darién, Panama.
During the next decade, he had remained in Castilla de Oro, exploring the Isthmus of Panama along with Vasco Nuñez de Balboa and Gaspar de Espinosa.
As one of the first settlers in Acla, Panama, he became the actuary of the local Spanish administrators.
A participant in the first two unsuccessful expeditions led by Pizarro, Diego de Almagro and Hernando de Luque in 1524, Xerez had not remained with Pizarro and his dozen or so companions—later called the Famous Thirteen—on the Isla de Gallo in 1527.
Between 1528 and 1530, Xerez lived in Natá of the Coclé Province as the actuary of governor Pedro de los Ríos.
During this last year, when Francisco Pizarro had returned from his interview with King Charles V in Toledo, Spain, Xerez had once again joined Pizarro and his followers on their voyage to conquer the Inca Empire.
Following the successful Battle of Cajamarca, Pizarro designates Xerez as his personal secretary and offers him a significant amount of the gold Atahualpa has paid as a ransom.
Xerez writes with great detail about the events that preceded the Spanish conquest and the first encounter Pizarro had with Atahualpa in Cajamarca.
Atahualpa now seeks to gain his freedom by offering the Spaniards a treasure in gold and silver.
Over the next few months, a fabulous cache of Incan treasure—some eleven tons of gold objects alone—is delivered to Cajamarca from all corners of the empire.
Pizarro distributes the loot to his "men of Cajamarca," creating instant "millionaires," but also slighting Diego de Almagro, his partner who arrives later with reinforcements.
This action sows the seeds for a bitter factional dispute that soon will throw Peru into a bloody civil war and cost both men their lives.
Once enriched by the Incas' gold, Pizarro, seeing no further use for Atahualpa, reneges on his agreement and executes the Inca—by garroting rather than hanging—after Atahualpa agrees to be baptized as a Christian.
Rumiñawi, born in Pillaro in the modern Tungurahua Province in Ecuador, has the given name of Ati II Pillahuaso.
Inca historians tend to believe that he was Atahualpa's half-brother, born from a native noble woman.
While Francisco Pizarro imprisons Atahualpa and holds him in the Ransom Room, Rumiñawi marches towards Cajamarca to deliver a huge amount of gold.