Zaranj Nimruz Afghanistan

The Saffarid dynasty begins with Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar (Ya'qub, son of Layth, the Coppersmith), a coppersmith who had moved to the city of Zaranj.

He had left work to become an Ayyar (literally, ‘vagabond”, eferring to a person associated with a class of warriors in Iraq and Iran) and eventually gathers the power to act as an independent ruler.

From his capital Zaranj, …

The Saffarid army swears loyalty to Tahir ibn Muhammad ibn Amr, who soon afterwards effectively makes his brother Abu Yusuf Ya'qub his co-ruler, although the khutba will continue to be made in 'Amr's name until late 901.

Tahir and Ya'qub return to Sistan, reaching Zaranj in May of 900.

From the onset of his reign, Tahir and his brother are under the thumb of the Turkish slave commander Sebük-eri, who manages to destroy Tahir’s vizier and replace him with one more to his liking.

Tahir spends much of his time early in his reign in the western part of his territories, having to deal with the occupation of Fars by the Abbasid Caliph al-Mu'tadid after the downfall of 'Amr.

A 900-901 campaign, in which both Tahir and Sebük-eri participate, temporarily regains Fars, but the Saffarids withdraw soon afterwards.

A second campaign results in a caliphal grant of the province to Tahir, although both Fars and Kerman effectively fall into the hands of Sebük-eri.

Al-Layth and his brother al-Mu'addal had in 890 helped their father 'Ali bn al-Layth escape from imprisonment at the hands of the latter's uncle, the Saffarid ruler Amr ibn al-Layth.

The three of them had fled to Khurasan, where they had entered the services of the leading anti-Saffarid in that region, Rafi' b. Harthama.

After 'Ali died in 893, the brothers had continued to serve Rafi'.

After Rafi' was defeated and killed in 896 they had been captured by 'Amr, who however had treated them well.

Following 'Amr's capture by the Samanids in 900, the slave (ghulam) commander Sebük-eri had begun establishing ties with al-Layth, who had gone into hiding in Sistan.

As the son of 'Ali, who had originally been designated as the successor to Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar, he is a possible contender for the amirate, and has gained supporters in the army.

Despite this, he had at first remained loyal to 'Amr's successor, Tahir ibn Muhammad.

He had participated in the abortive 900-901 campaign to recover Fars from the Abbasid Caliphate and another and more successful campaign that took place in around 904.

After the second Fars campaign, Tahir had returned to Zaranj, at which point both he and his brother Ya'qub had given themselves over to lives of pleasure and excesses.

Over the past few years, the two brothers have begun to lose the confidence of the people, and although the government bureaucracy has continued to function, the stability of the provinces has declined as rival factions opposed each other.

By 905, Sebük-eri had stopped forwarding taxes collected in Fars and Kerman to Zarang.

Tahir had responded by leading an army against Fars, but had soon been persuaded to abort the expedition and return to Sistan, having accomplished nothing.

In late 908, al-Layth arrives at Zaranj with a small army and occupies part of the city.

Ahmad's Turkic general Simjur al-Dawati receives the surrender of Zaranj from al-Mu'addal.

The conquest of the Saffarids complete by 911, Ahmad appoints his cousin Mansur ibn Ishaq as governor of Sistan in the following year.

The Samanids also capture the Caliphal rebel, Sebük-eri, and send him to Baghdad.

Mansur's oppressive taxation policies had sparked a revolt in Sistan within a year of his appointment.

The garrison at Zaranj was destroyed, and Mansur was captured.

Amr ibn Ya'qub, a Saffarid, was installed, first as a puppet for the leader of the rebellion, then as amir in his own right.

A Samanid army, however, under the control of Husain ibn 'Ali Marvarrudhi restores Samanid control to the region.

'Amr is sent to Samarkand; the other rebel leaders are killed.

Khalaf ibn Amad, amir of the Saffarid dynasty, is reported to have participated in a campaign together with Sebuktigin and the Farighunid amir of Guzgan to assist the Samanids in quelling a rebellion in Khurasan.

When Sebuktigin died in 997, however, his two sons Mahmud and Ismail had disputed over who should succeed him.

Khalaf had viewed this as an opportunity to gain territory from the Ghaznavids, and had sent his fourth son Tahir to take Quhistan and Badghis in 998.

Tahir had been defeated in Baghdis by Mahmud's uncle Bughrachuq, although the latter was killed in the fighting.

Mahmud has no intention of letting this assault go unpunished.

He leads his troops into Sistan in 1000 and traps a surprised Khalaf, who is staying at a hill resort.

Khalaf, lacking an army, has to pay an indemnity, put Mahmud's name before his own on his coins and place the Ghaznavid's name in the khutba.

Khalaf's son Tahir is mentioned as having invaded Buyid Kerman in 1000, although he was ultimately unsuccessful in making any lasting gains.

Soon afterwards he, like 'his brother Amr before him, had rebelled against Khalaf.

The rebellion ends with Tahir's capture; he is imprisoned and dies not long after, in 1002.

With Tahir's death Khalaf is no longer left with any suitable heirs.

Khalaf's reign has grown increasingly unpopular over the years; his unpopularity has especially grown after Tahir's rebellion.

After Tahir dies, the commander of his army sends a message to Mahmud of Ghazna, stating that the people of Zaranj want him to become the ruler of Sistan.

Mahmud responds by sending an advance force to secure Sistan.

Khalaf resists, barricades himself in Taq and withstands a siege by the Ghaznavid force, so Mahmud decides to come personally in November 1002.

Mahmud's army is reinforced by the townspeople of Zaranj, eager to see the Saffarid defeated.

Khalaf is forced to surrender by December of 1002 and is sent to Farighunid Guzgan, where he will live until 1006 or 1007.