Eastern Southeast Europe (700–711 CE): Defensive Struggles and Diplomatic Realignments

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Stability Under Continued Pressure

Between 700 and 711 CE, Eastern Southeast Europe maintained relative demographic stability despite ongoing military and political pressures. Settlements within the Bulgarian state continued to consolidate, furthering the integration of Slavic and Bulgar populations.

Political and Military Developments

Persistent Arab-Byzantine Conflicts

The East Roman Empire remained embroiled in nearly constant warfare against Muslim Arab forces on multiple fronts from 698 to 718. The defeat at the Battle of Sebastopolis in 692 and ensuing internal instability led to the gradual loss of critical regions, including Armenia and Cilicia. Carthage fell permanently to Arab forces by 698, marking the definitive end of Roman rule in North Africa.

Diplomatic Achievements

Diplomatic relations significantly improved between Constantinople, the Khazar Khanate, and the Danubian Bulgar Khanate, exemplified by Bulgar Khan Tervel becoming the first foreigner to receive the title of Caesar, second only to the Byzantine emperor. This diplomatic realignment substantially reinforced regional alliances.

Economic and Technological Developments

Economic Adaptation Amid Warfare

Despite persistent military conflict and territorial losses, economic resilience persisted through adaptation and refocusing of resources. The defense and fortification of Anatolia and the Balkans continued, maintaining regional stability and facilitating trade.

Military Innovations and Fortifications

Ongoing advancements in defensive technologies, including fortifications and naval tactics, remained crucial for protecting remaining imperial territories from persistent Arab raids. These improvements secured the empire's remaining territorial core, particularly Anatolia.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Liturgical and Artistic Innovations

Cultural and religious practices evolved significantly, highlighted by the transition from “kontakia” hymns to the “kanon” form around 700. Andrew of Crete emerged as a prominent figure in this new liturgical tradition, reflecting evolving religious and cultural expressions.

Intellectual and Scholarly Continuity

Scholarly and educational institutions persisted in their critical roles of preserving and developing classical, theological, and philosophical traditions, ensuring cultural resilience and continuity despite ongoing turmoil.

Social and Religious Developments

East-West Ecclesiastical Reconciliation

A rare moment of rapprochement occurred between the papacy and the Eastern Church, culminating in Pope Constantine’s historic visit to Constantinople. This event temporarily restored unity between the Latin-rite Western and Greek-rite Eastern Christian traditions, highlighting ongoing, if fragile, inter-church relationships.

Continued Strength of Eastern Orthodoxy

Eastern Orthodox Christianity further entrenched itself as the region's spiritual and social backbone, influencing societal norms and reinforcing regional identity amidst continuing political and military pressures.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era from 700 to 711 CE witnessed critical military challenges, significant territorial losses, and noteworthy diplomatic and religious developments. These elements substantially influenced Eastern Southeast Europe's geopolitical landscape, reinforcing the region's cultural identity and shaping the complex dynamics between Eastern and Western Christian traditions.

The form of Greek hymns called “kontakia’ gives way in about 700 to “kanons,” long poems built on nine odes and having a mystical association with the nine scriptural canticles.

By custom, the second ode is omitted except during Lent because of its serious nature, and the use of eight odes eventually becomes typical.

Andrew of Crete, who flourishes around this time, is one of the early renowned writers of the “kanon” form.

The Arabs capture several cities in 712-713.

The Opsikian army in Thrace on June 3, 713, overthrows and blinds Philippikos and, mainly at the instigation of the Senate and people, installs his chief secretary, Artemios, as Anastasios II.

Soon after his accession, Anastasios II imposes discipline on the army and executes those officers who had been directly involved in the conspiracy against Philippikos.

Andrew of Crete had been sent from his monastery in Jerusalem to Constantinople, where he had become deacon of the Hagia Sophia.

During the reign of Philippikos he had been made archbishop of Gortyna and had taken part in the Synod of Constantinople, where he had subscribed to Monothelitism; he recants his Monothelitic views in 713.

In developing the liturgy of the Greek Church, he is credited with inventing the kanon, a new genre of hymnography that consists of nine odes in stanzaic form, each sung to a different melody.

His canon replaces the kontakion, a homiletic hymn of which all stanzas were sung to the same melody.

Andrew is the author of many hymns and canons still used in Greek liturgical books.