Eastern Southeast Europe (388–399 CE): Stability, Tensions, and Early Transformation

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Stability and Urban Development

From 388 to 399 CE, Eastern Southeast Europe remained relatively stable under Roman administration, with cities like Constantinople and Philippopolis continuing to thrive. Urban centers benefited from ongoing infrastructural projects and economic integration into the broader Roman Empire, although Emperor Theodosius faced financial strains from maintaining expensive military campaigns and a diminished tax base.

Early Signs of Migration Pressure

Initial pressures from migrating peoples such as the Goths, Alans, and Huns began impacting the northern and eastern borders of the region. Gothic leader Alaric notably rebelled in 391 against Roman control, briefly attacking Emperor Theodosius before being pacified and integrated as the leader of Gothic troops within the Roman army. These early interactions hinted at the demographic shifts and political challenges ahead.

Economic and Technological Developments

Economic Prosperity and Trade Continuity

Economic conditions remained robust, driven by sustained trade networks and productive agricultural practices. Constantinople continued to serve as an essential economic hub, facilitating commerce between Europe, Asia Minor, and the Mediterranean, although the financial pressures of warfare strained imperial resources.

Infrastructure Maintenance and Expansion

Roman authorities continued investing in critical infrastructure, including roads, fortifications, and urban facilities. The maintenance and expansion of these structures were essential for supporting regional economic vitality and military preparedness, despite occasional fiscal challenges resulting from increased military expenditures.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Cultural Continuity and Artistic Production

Cultural and artistic activities flourished, characterized by public art, monuments, and architecture reflecting Roman imperial and Hellenistic traditions. Cities maintained vibrant cultural lives, preserving classical heritage through education and artistic expression.

Preservation of Classical Knowledge

Educational institutions remained active, preserving classical Greek and Roman literature, philosophy, and sciences. Libraries and scholarly activities sustained regional intellectual continuity and sophistication, reinforcing the intellectual foundations of Eastern Southeast Europe.

Social and Religious Developments

Roman Provincial Governance

Roman provincial governance continued managing local and regional affairs effectively, maintaining administrative efficiency and political stability despite internal tensions. After Emperor Theodosius's death in early 395, the Roman Empire split permanently between his young sons, Honorius in the West and Arcadius in the East. Neither emperor demonstrated capability, both remaining puppets controlled by powerful court officials. This division significantly influenced the political and administrative trajectory of the region, creating tensions within the imperial administration.

Christianity’s Growing Influence

Christianity’s prominence increased, with urban centers and rural areas seeing continued growth in Christian communities and ecclesiastical infrastructure. Religious institutions actively contributed to community cohesion and social integration, strengthening the region's social fabric and cultural identity.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 388 to 399 CE was marked by general stability yet indicated early pressures foreshadowing significant future transformations. Economic prosperity, cultural vitality, and religious expansion during these years laid crucial groundwork for the region's response to forthcoming migrations and socio-political shifts, particularly given the lasting division of the Roman Empire and emerging challenges from internal instability and external pressures.

Theodosius dies a few months later in early 395, leaving his young sons Honorius and Arcadius as emperors.

In the immediate aftermath of Theodosius's death, the magister militum Stilicho, married to Theodosius's niece, asserts himself in the West as the guardian of Honorius and commander of the remains of the defeated Western army.

He also claims control over Arcadius in Constantinople, but Rufinus, magister officiorum on the spot, has already established his own power there.

The Empire will henceforward not be under the control of one man until much of the West has been permanently lost.

Neither Honorius nor Arcadius, both of whom both live as the puppets of their courts, will ever display any ability either as rulers or as generals.

Stilicho will try for the rest of his life to reunite the Eastern and Western courts under his personal control, but in doing so achieves only the continued hostility of Arcadius's successive supreme ministers.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (388–399 CE): Theodosius's Consolidation and Religious Orthodoxy

The era 388–399 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is defined by the firm consolidation of imperial authority under Theodosius I, the deepening integration of Christianity as the state religion, and evolving cultural dynamics amid persistent external threats.

Imperial Consolidation under Theodosius I

After successfully defeating the usurper Magnus Maximus in 388 CE, Theodosius I unifies the Roman Empire for the last time under single imperial authority. His leadership stabilizes the empire temporarily, reasserting central control and solidifying political cohesion across Mediterranean Southwest Europe.

The Edicts Against Paganism

Theodosius intensifies his religious policies, promoting Christianity through a series of edicts targeting traditional Roman paganism. Notably, between 391 and 392 CE, he issues edicts prohibiting pagan worship and sacrifices, resulting in widespread closure and destruction of temples. These measures significantly accelerate the decline of traditional religious practices in favor of Christianity.

Cultural Shifts and the Dominance of Christianity

Christianity's ascendance deeply influences cultural and intellectual expression. Public art, architecture, and literature increasingly reflect Christian themes, reshaping the cultural landscape. Traditional Roman values and imagery continue to evolve, integrating into a distinctly Christianized cultural identity.

Economic Resilience and Provincial Stability

Despite religious upheaval and administrative realignment, regional economies demonstrate resilience. Infrastructure projects initiated under Theodosius, combined with stable agricultural and commercial activity, sustain economic vitality across Mediterranean Southwest Europe.

Military Vigilance and Frontier Pressures

Throughout his reign, Theodosius maintains rigorous frontier defenses, notably against renewed threats from Germanic tribes. The stabilization of Gothic federates within the empire provides short-term security, yet underscores Rome’s increasing reliance on allied barbarian groups for defense.

Division of the Empire (395 CE)

Upon Theodosius’s death in 395 CE, the Roman Empire is definitively divided between his sons—Arcadius in the East and Honorius in the West—marking a permanent division that profoundly influences subsequent historical developments in the region.

Legacy of the Era

The era 388–399 CE marks a significant turning point characterized by imperial unification followed by permanent division, the decisive triumph of Christianity over paganism, and enduring economic and cultural transformations. Theodosius’s reign solidifies Christianity’s primacy, reshapes imperial governance, and sets the stage for the profound political and cultural shifts that define the Roman world in the following centuries.

Atlantic West Europe (388–399): The Decline of Roman Authority and the Emergence of Barbarian Power

Between 388 and 399, Atlantic West Europe—including Roman Gaul (Aquitania, Gallia Belgica, Gallia Lugdunensis), Britannia, Armorica (later Brittany), and the Rhine frontier—experienced accelerated political and military turbulence, marking a pivotal shift from Roman control toward emerging barbarian influence.

Political and Military Developments

Roman Authority Under Strain

• Theodosius I (r. 379–395), the last emperor to rule a unified Roman Empire, briefly restored stability following the usurpation of Magnus Maximus (executed 388), reasserting imperial control over Gaul and Britannia.

• Following Theodosius's death (395), the empire permanently split between his sons: Honorius (West) and Arcadius (East). This division weakened imperial governance in the Western provinces, particularly Gaul and Britannia.

Barbarian Pressures and Settlement

• Germanic tribes increasingly pressured the Rhine frontier, exploiting Roman internal divisions.

• The Franks, notably the Salian Franks, expanded into northern Gaul and Belgica, gradually establishing semi-independent territories along the lower Rhine and Meuse rivers.

Revolts and Usurpations

• Arbogast, a Frankish general serving Rome, effectively governed Gaul on behalf of Valentinian II. After Valentinian’s death (392), Arbogast supported the usurper Eugenius, defeated by Theodosius at the Battle of the Frigidus (394).

• This conflict depleted Roman strength, leaving the Western Empire vulnerable to further barbarian incursions and internal instability.

Economic and Social Developments

Economic Decline and Regionalization

• Declining trade and monetary circulation throughout Gaul and Britannia weakened economic cohesion, increasing reliance on local agricultural production.

• Villas in Aquitania and the Loire Valley became more isolated, signaling declining central control and the early stages of ruralization.

Urban Decline and Defensive Fortifications

• Cities in northern Gaul (e.g., Trier, Cologne) and Britannia (e.g., Londinium) saw decreased population and economic activity.

• Fortifications and castra were reinforced, reflecting anxiety over barbarian attacks and the empire's diminishing capacity to guarantee protection.

Religious and Cultural Developments

Rise of Christianity

• Christianity continued to expand in urban centers, driven by influential bishops such as Martin of Tours (d.397), whose missionary work significantly shaped the region’s religious identity.

• The foundation of monasteries, including Ligugé (360s, near Poitiers) and Marmoutier (near Tours, founded c. 372 by St. Martin), set early precedents for monastic communities in Gaul.

Pagan-Christian Cultural Tensions

• The period witnessed ongoing tension and occasional violence between lingering pagan communities and ascendant Christian authorities, notably in urban centers across Gaul.

Key Figures

• Theodosius I (r.379–395): Last ruler of unified Roman Empire, whose death triggered long-term instability.

• Arbogast (d.394): Frankish-Roman general whose influence exemplified shifting power dynamics.

• Martin of Tours (d.397): Influential bishop, missionary, and monastic founder, pivotal to Christianity’s establishment.

Long-Term Significance

This era marked a critical inflection point in Atlantic West Europe:

• The final effective Roman authority over Gaul and Britannia began to collapse, setting the stage for barbarian kingdoms.

• Germanic tribes, notably the Franks, started forming independent power structures.

• The increasing influence of Christianity, particularly through monastic foundations, shaped the cultural and religious identity of the region for centuries to come.

Theodosius, having ordered one army division from Egypt to Africa and having sent young Valentinian II with a fleet to Italy, sets out in the spring of 388 with the main body of troops to move against the army of the usurper Maximus, now invading Pannonia in the Balkans.

His son Arcadius, an augustus since 383, represents him in the East.

Maximus, upon the defeat of his troops near Siscia and at Poetovio, in Illyricum (in the Balkans) in July, flees to Italy, pursued by Theodosius as his navy gains command of the Adriatic Sea.

Theodosius, while maintaining an entirely friendly attitude toward the church, still takes care in his legislation to see that the material interests of the state are sacrificed only to a very limited extent to church or clergy.

In addition, Theodosius decides to enforce more strongly against the pagans the religious policy he has pursued since 379.

Up to this time, he has tolerated the pantheists and has entrusted adherents of the old cults with the highest offices, but in February 391, he prohibits sacrifices and the visiting of temples.

By remaining in Italy until the spring of 391, where he resides mostly in Milan, Theodosius emphasizes his claim to supreme authority throughout the empire.

Quarrels between his second wife, Galla, and his son Arcadius, as well as his own view of the eastern capital as the center of the empire, prompt Theodosius to move his residence back to Constantinople, where he will arrive in November 391.

Eugenius, when elected emperor in the West, had sent ambassadors to Theodosius's court, asking for recognition of his election.

Theodosius had received them, but started to gather troops to defeat Eugenius.

Theodosius leaves no further doubts as to his position when in January 393 he elevates his nine-year-old son Honorius to Augustus of the West and thereby demonstrates that he will no longer tolerate any emperor other than himself and his sons.

The now inevitable struggle for power is thus at the same time a struggle that will decide whether other religions will again be tolerated within the empire alongside Christianity.

Because Theodosius still refrains from military action, his enemies occupy Italy in the spring of 393.

Led by Roman prefect Nicomachus Flavianus, the forces striving to preserve the old cults gather around Eugenius.

Theodosius marches west in May 394 to suppress the revolution.

As in 388, he will make his way toward the Danube and then the Sava with his powerful army.

His force consists largely of barbarians and their allies, one of whose leaders is the German-born Roman general Flavius Stilicho, who in 385 had been appointed count of the domestics (commanding the Emperor's household troops) and in or before 393 had been named master of both services (i.e., commander in chief of the army).

Following Stilicho’s service on an embassy to the Persian king Shapur III, Theodosius had in 384 arranged the marriage of his favorite niece Serena, whom he had adopted as his daughter, to Stilicho, then an upcoming military officer, ensuring his loyalty to the House of Theodosius in the years ahead.

Stilicho has become the enemy of Rufinus, a native of Gaul who had risen to the rank of praetorian prefect of Illyricum, because of a difference of opinion about the treatment of some barbarian invaders in 389.

Theodosius' sons Arcadius and Honorius stay behind in the capital.

Arcadius, who had been given the right to promulgate laws independently, is supposed to direct the government in the East.

Theodosius had fallen ill, probably because of the exertion of the campaign, and goes to Milan, where he summons Honorius in order to present him formally as Augustus of the West, while intending to return his eldest son, Arcadius, to the East.