Henry V succeeds to the throne in 1413.

He renews hostilities with France and began a set of military campaigns which are considered a new phase of the Hundred Years War, referred to as the Lancastrian War.

He wins several notable victories over the French, including at the Battle of Agincourt.

In the Treaty of Troyes, Henry V is given the power to succeed the current ruler of France, Charles VI of France.

The Treaty also provides that he will marry Charles VI's daughter, Catherine of Valois.

They marry in 1421.

Henry dies of dysentery in 1422, leaving a number of unfulfilled plans, including his plan to take over as King of France. (Another unfulfilled plan was to lead a new crusade to retake Jerusalem from the Muslims.)

Henry V's son, Henry VI, becomes king in 1422 as an infant.

His reign is to be marked by constant turmoil due to his political weaknesses.

While he is growing up, England is ruled by the Regency government.

The Regency Council attempts to install Henry VI as the King of France, as provided by the Treaty of Troyes signed by his father Henry V, and leads English forces to take over areas of France.

It appears they might succeed due to the poor political position of the son of King Charles VI, who has claimed to be the rightful king as King Charles VII of France.

However, in 1429, Joan of Arc begins to lead a military effort by the French to prevent the English from gaining control of France.

With her help, the French forces are able to push the English forces back and to regain control of French territory.

Northwest Europe (1420–1431 CE): Dynastic Ambitions and Regional Turmoil

England: Triumph and Turmoil

Following his triumph at Agincourt in 1415, Henry V of England sought to solidify English control over France through both military prowess and diplomatic strategy. The Treaty of Troyes (1420) granted Henry the French crown upon the death of the current French king, Charles VI, and arranged his marriage to Catherine of Valois, effectively disinheriting the Dauphin Charles (the future Charles VII). Henry continued military campaigns to enforce these claims until his untimely death in 1422. His infant son ascended the throne as Henry VI, with England and France plunged into further instability.

Scotland: Continued Regency and Captivity

Scotland, still suffering from internal divisions and external threats, continued under the regency of the Duke of Albany until his death in 1420, succeeded by his son, Murdoch Stewart. Meanwhile, James I remained captive in England, shaping his perspectives and ambitions from afar. James’s continued captivity fostered Scottish political uncertainty and increased factionalism among the Scottish nobility. James I is generally considered to be the author of The Kingis Quair ("The King's Book"), a long poem about his captivity and about his romance with Joan Beaufort.

Ireland: Gaelic Resurgence and English Struggles

In Ireland, Gaelic chieftains maintained their dominance and increasingly asserted autonomy from English control. The Anglo-Norman authority was restricted further, with territorial control largely limited to The Pale. Irish leaders, including powerful clans like the O’Neills and the O’Briens, solidified their influence, resisting attempts by English forces to regain lost territory.

Scandinavia: Internal Stability, External Tensions

The Kalmar Union, under the rule of King Eric of Pomerania, faced mounting internal tensions, especially in Sweden, where opposition to the centralizing policies grew. Despite these internal frictions, the union largely remained intact, preserving relative regional stability. King Eric continued to manage the delicate balance of power among the Scandinavian kingdoms, but underlying disputes hinted at future challenges.

Iceland: Preservation of Cultural Heritage

Within the Kalmar Union, Iceland preserved its distinct cultural heritage. Literary production flourished, notably through sagas, chronicles, and poetic traditions, maintaining Iceland's cultural identity amid political subordination. This period saw a sustained commitment to the transmission and preservation of Icelandic historical and literary traditions.

Cultural and Architectural Developments

Cultural life across Northwest Europe remained vibrant. Architectural projects, such as the ongoing construction and elaboration of York Minster in the Perpendicular Gothic style, demonstrated sustained artistic and technical ambition. In music, the influence of composers such as John Dunstaple continued to expand, with his innovative harmonic techniques gaining recognition across Europe. Dunstaple's compositions often featured mass-ordinary cycles, with movements unified by musical themes or a cantus firmus. His harmonic innovations were based notably on the intervals of the third and the sixth.

Legacy of the Era

By 1431 CE, Northwest Europe was characterized by dynastic ambitions intertwined with deep regional and political complexities. England grappled with securing its extensive claims in France under the weakened rule of young Henry VI; Scotland awaited the return of its captive king to restore stability; Ireland saw Gaelic dominance largely uncontested; and the Kalmar Union faced persistent internal pressures. Amid these political dynamics, cultural flourishing provided continuity, underscoring the resilience and creativity that defined this transformative era.

Northwest Europe (1432–1443 CE): Shifts in Power and Cultural Flourishing

England: Regency and Dynastic Strife

Following the premature death of Henry V, England found itself under the troubled regency during the minority of Henry VI, whose reign was marked by instability. Powerful nobles vied for influence, further complicated by ongoing conflicts in France. English military positions weakened, and internal factional struggles intensified, laying foundations for future strife.

Scotland: Return and Reforms of James I

In 1424, James I returned to Scotland after eighteen years of English captivity, taking active control of his kingdom. His rule focused on centralizing royal authority, reducing the power of the nobility, and reforming Scottish governance along English lines. James established a more robust legal framework and fostered economic development through support for trade and urban growth. He was generally credited with authoring The Kingis Quair ("The King's Book"), a poetic reflection on his captivity and romance with Joan Beaufort, showcasing a profound blend of personal experience and literary talent.

Ireland: Gaelic Authority Strengthens

Gaelic authority in Ireland continued to strengthen, as local chieftains like the O’Neills and the O’Briens solidified their autonomous positions. English influence remained confined primarily to The Pale, with efforts to reclaim broader authority largely ineffective. Irish cultural life thrived, fostering a distinct Gaelic identity increasingly independent of English control.

Scandinavia: Struggle within the Kalmar Union

Under King Eric of Pomerania, the Kalmar Union struggled to manage internal discord, especially from Sweden. Opposition to Eric’s centralizing policies grew, notably among the Swedish nobility, resulting in escalating tensions and occasional outbreaks of conflict. Despite this, the union endured, maintaining relative peace through fragile political compromises.

Iceland: Continued Cultural Resilience

Icelandic cultural resilience flourished within the Kalmar Union. Literary activity, especially saga-writing and historical chronicles, persisted robustly, preserving Iceland's rich heritage and distinct identity. This era witnessed significant commitment to maintaining the literary and historical legacy unique to Iceland.

Cultural Developments and Artistic Achievements

Cultural achievements across Northwest Europe remained prominent. Architectural projects such as the ongoing enhancements at York Minster, exemplifying the Perpendicular Gothic style, advanced artistic innovation. English composer John Dunstaple and contemporaries like Leonel Power shaped musical developments through their innovative mass-ordinary cycles, often based on cantus firmus techniques, and Dunstaple’s harmonic use of thirds and sixths, profoundly influencing European music.

Legacy of the Era

By 1443 CE, Northwest Europe had witnessed significant shifts in political power and vibrant cultural accomplishments. England struggled with internal factionalism and diminishing French territories; Scotland benefited from King James I’s centralizing reforms; Ireland saw continued Gaelic dominance; and the Kalmar Union grappled with persistent tensions threatening its stability. Amid these political complexities, cultural and artistic endeavors flourished, underscoring the region’s resilience and intellectual vitality during this transformative period.

Catherine of Valois, the widow of English king Henry V, and mother of Henry VI, is still young and marriageable, a source of concern to her brother-in-law Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester and Lord Protector.

Rumors abounded that Catherine planns to marry Edmund Beaufort, Count of Mortain, her late husband's cousin.

The Duke of Gloucester is strongly against the match, however, and the Parliament of 1427–8 had passed a bill which set forth the provision that if the queen dowager remarried without the king's consent, her husband would forfeit his lands and possessions, although any children of the marriage would not suffer punishment.

The king's consent is contingent upon his having attained his majority.

The king at that time was only six years old.

Catherine lives in the king's household, presumably so she can care for her young son, but the arrangement also enables the councilors to watch over the queen dowager herself.

Catherine has nevertheless entered into a sexual relationship with Welshman Owen ap Maredudd ap Tudor, who in 1421 in France, had been in the service of Henry V's steward Sir Walter Hungerford.

Tudor was most likely appointed keeper of Catherine's household or wardrobe.

The relationship began when Catherine lived at Windsor Castle, and she became pregnant with their first child there.

At some point, she stops living in the King's household and in May 1432 Parliament grants Owen the rights of an Englishman.

This is important because of Henry IV's laws limiting the rights of Welshmen.

There is no clear evidence either way whether Catherine and Owen Tudor actually married.

No documentation of such a marriage exists.

Moreover, even if they had been married, the question exists if the marriage would have been lawful, given the Act of 1428.

From the relationship of Owen Tudor and Queen Catherine descends the Tudor dynasty of England, starting with King Henry VII.

Tudor historians assert that Owen and Catherine had been married, for their lawful marriage would add respectability and stronger royal ties to the claims of the Tudor dynasty.