Charles Edward Stuart
second Jacobite pretender to the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland
Years: 1720 - 1788
Prince Charles Edward Louis John Casimir Sylvester Severino Maria Stuart (31 December 1720 – 31 January 1788) commonly known as Bonnie Prince Charlie or The Young Pretender is the second Jacobite pretender to the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland.
This claim is as the eldest son of James Francis Edward Stuart, himself the son of King James VII and II.
Charles is perhaps best known as the instigator of the unsuccessful Jacobite uprising of 1745, in which he leads an insurrection in the United Kingdom, which ends in defeat at the Battle of Culloden that effectively ends the Jacobite cause.
Charles's flight from Scotland after the uprising has rendered him a romantic figure of heroic failure in later representations.
In 1759 he is involved in a French plan to invade the British Isles which was abandoned following British naval victories.
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As a result of these, any failure to pledge loyalty to the victorious King William is dealt with severely.
The most infamous example of this policy is the Massacre of Glencoe in 1692.
Jacobite rebellions continue on into the mid-eighteenth century until the son of the last Catholic claimant to the throne, (James III & VIII), mounts a final campaign in 1745.
The Jacobite forces of Prince Charles Edward Stuart, the "Bonnie Prince Charlie" of legend, are defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746.
Antonio David, the official painter for the Jacobite court living in Rome, paints portraits of Prince Charles Edward Stuart ("Bonnie Prince Charlie") and his brother Prince Henry.
David, an Italian, paints primarily portraits, and for the next twenty years works will almost exclusively with the House of Stuart.
Capua holds out until November when its commander, Otto Ferdinand von Abensberg und Traun, finally negotiates surrender terms when he runs out of ammunition.
The Jacobite pretender to the thrones of United Kingdom and France, Charles Edward Stuart, who is under fourteen at this time, had also participated in the French and Spanish siege of Gaeta, making his first exposure to battle.
Northwest Europe (1744–1755): Jacobite Rebellion, Colonial Rivalries, and Industrial Advances
The Jacobite Rebellion of 1745
In 1745, long-simmering Jacobite discontent flared into open rebellion. Charles Edward Stuart—the Young Pretender—landed in the Scottish Highlands and rallied clans to his cause, aiming to restore the Stuart dynasty. After early victories at Prestonpans and the occupation of Edinburgh, his forces crossed into England. Yet by 1746, the rebellion was crushed at the Battle of Culloden, where British troops under the Duke of Cumberland delivered a decisive and brutal defeat. The aftermath ushered in harsh reprisals: Highland culture was suppressed, Jacobite leaders were executed or exiled, and the clan system was systematically dismantled, extinguishing a centuries-old social order.
Britain and France: Intensifying Colonial Rivalry
The mid-1740s to early 1750s saw escalating Anglo-French competition over overseas territories, particularly in North America, the Caribbean, and India. These conflicts, part of a broader imperial rivalry, included frequent naval skirmishes and proxy wars that destabilized the colonial frontier. These tensions were a prelude to the global conflict that would become the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763).
The British government, wary of the financial strain of sustained conflict, turned again to its most powerful trading institution. In 1742, Parliament had extended the United East India Company's exclusive license until 1783 in exchange for a £1 million loan. This extension ensured continued revenues from Indian trade and reinforced the company's central role in supporting the British imperial and fiscal apparatus.
The 1750 Gaol Fever Outbreak
In May 1750, another devastating outbreak of gaol fever (typhus) struck the heart of London’s legal establishment. Originating in the filthy confines of Newgate Prison, the disease spread into the adjacent Old Bailey courtroom during the Lent assizes. Among the dead were Sir Samuel Pennant, the Lord Mayor of London, and a large number of court officers and jurors. This tragedy highlighted the appalling conditions of British prisons and the permeability of disease between carceral and civic spaces, reigniting calls for penal reform—though substantive change would remain slow.
The Hellfire Club and Elite Dissent
In this era of formal Enlightenment and state consolidation, a more shadowy aspect of elite culture flourished. Around 1749, Sir Francis Dashwood revived the Hellfire Club, more formally known as the Order of the Friars of St. Francis of Wycombe. Its rumored rituals—held at Medmenham Abbey—and its motto, Fais ce que tu voudras ("Do what thou wilt"), shocked polite society. Though shrouded in secrecy, the club attracted powerful political figures and prominent members of the aristocracy. Earlier iterations had been founded as early as 1719 by Philip, Duke of Wharton, and continued to proliferate, especially in Ireland. These clubs embodied a paradox of the period: outward rationalism masking inner libertinism among the ruling class.
John Harrison and the Mechanization of Precision
Meanwhile, John Harrison advanced his efforts to resolve the longitude problem. His H2 and H3 marine chronometers—refined in the 1740s and early 1750s—incorporated mechanisms designed to resist the distortions of humidity, temperature, and ship movement. Harrison’s work represented the forefront of mechanical innovation, challenging long-standing astronomical approaches and offering Britain a competitive navigational advantage. Though official recognition remained elusive, his chronometers laid the groundwork for reliable sea navigation, vital in an era of intensifying global trade and naval warfare.
William Champion and Zinc Metallurgy
In the realm of industry, William Champion revolutionized British metallurgy with the first commercial-scale zinc production. Building on methods similar to those long practiced at the Zawar mines in India, Champion adapted the process to Bristol’s industrial infrastructure. His innovation involved solving a complex thermodynamic problem: zinc vaporizes at 907°C, but requires reduction at 1000°C, necessitating a sealed furnace with a vapor condensation mechanism. Although no direct transmission of knowledge from India can yet be demonstrated, Champion’s success reflected a growing capacity for independent scientific problem-solving and the dawn of modern chemical engineering in Northwest Europe.
Denmark-Norway: Quiet Reform and Commercial Development
In Denmark-Norway, Frederick V continued the cautious modernization of his dual monarchy. While not a major actor in the Anglo-French rivalry, Denmark-Norway pursued regional economic consolidation. Copenhagen’s shipyards and merchants grew in importance, while gradual administrative reforms continued. However, the North Atlantic dependencies—Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Shetland, and Orkney—remained on the periphery, economically dependent on fishing and trade in wool and dried cod, and largely untouched by the era’s industrial innovations.
Ireland: Repression and Emigration
The penal codes remained harshly enforced in Ireland, marginalizing the Catholic majority and restricting political and economic participation. Rural poverty deepened, especially in western counties, driving a new wave of emigration to North America. Though Dublin and Belfast retained pockets of commercial vitality and Enlightenment culture, the broader island remained socially polarized and economically stagnant.
Intellectual and Cultural Milestones
The literary and intellectual culture of Northwest Europe continued to flourish. In 1755, Samuel Johnson published his Dictionary of the English Language, an extraordinary achievement that standardized English spelling and grammar. Simultaneously, elite social spaces—from libraries and salons to reading chairs and secret societies—supported a wide range of intellectual expression, from moral philosophy to occult experimentation. The period’s cultural life reflected the tensions between Enlightenment order and aristocratic indulgence.
Between 1744 and 1755, Northwest Europe experienced profound shifts: the last Jacobite rebellion was extinguished, Britain and France entered increasingly violent imperial rivalry, and transformative scientific and industrial advances began reshaping the region's technological capabilities. From the disease-ridden prisons of London to the smelting furnaces of Bristol, from secret libertine societies to precision marine chronometers, the age was marked by paradox—order and disorder, discipline and decadence—on the cusp of global conflict and industrial revolution.
A declaration is drawn up for Maurice declaring that Louis XV has no territorial designs on England and has imposed no conditions on King James.
The rivalry between France and England is due only to the Elector of Hanover and is not in the interests of England.
Furthermore, Maurice's troops will be withdrawn as soon as a Stuart restoration occurs and commerce will bring mutual prosperity.
However, François de Bussy, a senior clerk in the French Foreign Office, informs the Duke of Newcastle (in a coded message) of the plans in return for two thousand pounds.
The message is decoded on February 14 and Bussy has named the Duke of Beaufort, Lord Barrymore, Wynn and Cotton.
These include the Catholic Duke of Perth, his uncle Lord John Drummond of Fairntower, Lord Lovat, Donald Cameron of Lochiel and Lord Linton, with John Murray of Broughton an intermediary between the Highlands and the Lowlands and linking the Association with the House of Stuart.
The Battle off the Berlangas (May 8, 1744) and the War of the Austrian Succession
By the early 1740s, Britain and France were locked in an escalating struggle for maritime supremacy as part of the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748). The conflict had begun as a dispute over the Habsburg succession following the death of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI, but it quickly evolved into a broader European war, with Britain, Austria, and the Dutch Republic opposing France, Spain, and Prussia. The war extended beyond continental battlefields, fueling a fierce naval rivalry between Britain and the Bourbon allies, France and Spain.
In this volatile environment, British naval squadrons patrolled European waters to counter French and Spanish movements. One such squadron, commanded by Sir Charles Hardy, was operating off the Berlangas, a small Portuguese archipelago west of Peniche, when it encountered an enemy sail on May 8, 1744. The Northumberland, a seventy-gun British ship of the line, was dispatched to investigate.
As it closed the distance, the Northumberland identified the vessel as the Mars, a sixty-four-gun French warship, accompanied by two other ships: the sixty-gun Content and a sixth-rate frigate. Despite the numerical disadvantage, Captain Thomas Watson—a man of unquestioned bravery but questionable tactical judgment—chose not to signal their presence to Vice-Admiral Hardy. Instead, he pressed forward under full sail, isolating himself from British support.
The French ships were widely dispersed, and by 5 PM, the Northumberland reached the Mars, engaging in a running battle. As the two exchanged volleys, Watson attempted to close the distance on the Content as well, intensifying the engagement into a multi-ship action. The Northumberland fought fiercely for nine hours, but under sustained French fire, she became unmanageable, her wheel shattered and her rigging severely damaged.
Amidst the chaos, Captain Watson was mortally wounded, and command fell into disorder. With the ship adrift and incapable of maneuvering, the Northumberland’s master—later court-martialed for surrendering without sufficient cause—struck the British colors, handing victory to the French.
Implications and Aftermath
The loss of the Northumberland was a serious blow to British naval prestige, demonstrating the risks of overzealous command decisions in isolated engagements. The event also underscored the increasing strategic importance of Portugal, a traditional British ally, whose coastline had become a contested zone in the Anglo-French naval struggle.
More broadly, this action reflected the larger challenges Britain faced in the early years of the War of the Austrian Succession. French naval forces were becoming bolder, and Britain’s reliance on isolated squadrons left them vulnerable to well-coordinated counterattacks. The defeat further motivated British naval strategists to strengthen squadron coordination and intelligence-sharing to avoid similar disasters.
By 1747, Britain had recovered from early setbacks, delivering decisive blows to the French navy at the First and Second Battles of Cape Finisterre, reinforcing British control of Atlantic trade routes. However, the events off the Berlangas in 1744 served as an important reminder of the perils of independent action and the enduring challenge of maritime warfare in the 18th century.
The French government cancels the planned invasion in April.
Parliament passes an Act outlawing correspondence with James Francis Edward Stuart's sons.
