Constantius Gallus

The Arian leaders, exiled after the Council of Nicaea, have from 325 to the death of Constantine in 337 tried by intrigue to return to their churches and sees and to banish their enemies.

They have been partly successful.

After some months of confusion, the emperor's three surviving sons each adopt the title of Augustus on September 9 and divide the empire among themselves.

Constantius II takes the eastern provinces (Thrace, Macedonia, Greece, Asia, and Egypt) for himself.

Simultaneously, the troops massacre many of his relatives, including Constantine's half-brother, Julius Constantius, consul in 335 and father of the future caesar Gallus and the six-year-old future emperor Julian, who is exiled with the rest of his family to Cappadocia.

(In Julian's 361 Letter to the Athenians, he will openly accuse Constantius of murdering his father.

The historian Eutropius felt the new emperor had “permitted but not ordered” the killings.)

Constantius expands Roman anti-Jewish legislation; Jews are labeled “a pernicious sect”.

The Jewish Revolt in Palestine During the Reign of Constantius II (351 CE)

In 351 CE, as Emperor Constantius II struggled to govern the vast Roman Empire alone, he appointed his cousin Gallus as Caesar of the East on March 15, 351 CE, at Sirmium. Gallus arrived in Antioch on May 7, 351 CE, assuming control over the eastern provinces.

During this transition of power, or shortly after Gallus' arrival, a Jewish revolt erupted in Palestine, centered in Diocesarea (modern-day Sepphoris, Israel).

1. Leaders and Messianic Hopes

The rebellion was led by:

• Isaac of Diocesarea (or Sepphoris) – A Jewish leader who mobilized local forces.
• Patricius (also called Natrona) – His name carried messianic connotations, suggesting that he may have been viewed as a deliverer or messianic figure.

These leaders likely capitalized on long-standing Jewish discontent over Roman rule and Christian dominance, intensified under Constantius II, who strongly favored Christianity.

2. The Course of the Revolt

• The rebellion began with a night attack on a Roman garrison, which was destroyed, allowing the rebels to seize weapons.
• After securing arms, the insurgents expanded their attacks, targeting:
  • Greeks, who were often aligned with Roman authority.
  • Samaritans, long-standing rivals of Jewish factions in the region.
• The revolt quickly spread, raising concerns in Rome’s eastern provinces about regional instability.

3. Roman Response and Gallus’ Brutal Suppression

• As the Caesar of the East, Gallus was responsible for restoring order.
• He dispatched his general, Ursicinus, to crush the rebellion with overwhelming force.
• Roman legions retaliated harshly, leading to:
  • Mass executions of Jewish rebels.
  • The destruction of Diocesarea, the heart of the uprising.
  • Widespread devastation in Galilean towns, discouraging future resistance.

4. Consequences of the Revolt

• The Jewish population of Palestine suffered severe losses, with many killed, enslaved, or displaced.
• Roman authorities increased their crackdown on Jewish communities, further limiting their autonomy and rights.
• The revolt deepened Jewish-Christian tensions, as Christian Roman officials saw the uprising as a threat to imperial stability.
• This rebellion was one of the last major Jewish revolts in the Roman East, marking the continued decline of Jewish political influence in Palestine.

5. Conclusion: A Failed Revolt and Its Aftermath

While the revolt in Palestine of 351 CE was short-lived, its brutal suppression reaffirmed Roman dominance and highlighted:

• The fragility of Jewish-Roman relations under a Christianized empire.
• The ruthlessness of Gallus, whose harsh rule would eventually lead to his own downfall in 354 CE.
• The gradual decline of Jewish resistance in the region, as repeated uprisings failed to restore independence.

This largely forgotten rebellion was one of the last Jewish armed uprisings in antiquity, overshadowed by earlier revolts but still a testament to the ongoing resistance against Roman and Christian rule.

Julius Constantius' second wife, Basilina, had died soon after the birth of Gallus' half brother Julian, who was thus early left an orphan.

With Gallus, seven years his senior, he had been brought up in obscurity, first by Eusebius, Arian bishop of Nicomedia in Bithynia, and later at the remote estate of Macellum in Cappadocia.

By the patronage of Eusebia, wife of Constantius II, Julian, at age nineteen, had been allowed to continue his education, first at Como and later in Greece.

Having developed a fondness for Hellenic literature, he secretly converts in 351 to the pagan Neoplatonism, recently “reformed” by the late Syrian philosopher Iamblichus, and is initiated into theurgy by Maximus of Ephesus, the Neoplatonist philosopher and theurgic magician whose most spectacular achievement has been the animation of a statue of Hecate.

Emperor Constantius II, like his father before him, shows a preference for the Christian religion, which he favors over all others, including Judaism.

Unlike his father, however, Constantius allows Christians to persecute the pagans and the Jews.

Christian clergy practices intolerance toward non-Christians, both through the secular arm and directing the angry crowds, which attack and destroy synagogues and temples.

The Jews eventually decide to react, opposing Christian proselytism and showing intolerance toward Jewish converts.

The fiery sermons, preached in synagogues against Edom, are in fact directed against those Romans who, after removing the Jews' political independence, are now repressing their religion.

Constantius in 350 is engaged in a campaign in the East against the Sassanids.

He is however forced to return to the West to counter the usurpation of Magnentius, who had murdered Constantius' brother and colleague, Constans.

Constantius therefore decides to appoint his cousin Constantius Gallus Caesar of the East.

Constantius, at Sirmium on March 15, 351, proclaims Gallus his coadjutor and eventual successor to handle problems in the east, and arranges Gallus's marriage to his sister Constantia.

Gallus, the second of three children of Julius Constantius, had escaped the slaughter that followed the death of Constantine in 337—his elder brother had been killed in 34—purportedly because he was suffering at the time from what was thought to be a fatal illness.

(Julian, the youngest brother, will mention years later that he and Gallus were told repeatedly that Constantius' actions had been the result of a combination of misinformation and pressure from the soldiery, and that the emperor had come to regret his actions, which, in his mind, he linked to his childlessness and to military misfortunes on the Persian front.)

Constantius Gallus, a son of Julius Constantius by his first wife Galla, was born in Massa Veternensis, Italia, after his father had been recalled from exile.

Gallus' paternal grandparents were the Western Roman Emperor Constantius Chlorus and his second wife Flavia Maximiana Theodora.

Julius Constantius was a paternal half-brother of the Roman Emperor Constantine I, which, in turn, means Gallus is a half-first cousin of Constantine's sons, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans.

At some point prior to 331/2, Gallus' mother, Galla, seems to have died, as at that stage, Gallus' father was married to one Basilina and had had a son by that marriage.

Gallus has three siblings: an elder sister, of unknown name, who was the first wife of Constantius II, an elder brother, also of unknown name, who died in the purges that occurred in the imperial family after the death of Constantine I in 337, and a younger half-brother by his father's second marriage, named Flavius Claudius Iulianus, commonly known as Julian.

Gallus himself is one of the only imperial males, outside of the three sons of Constantine I and Fausta, who were not killed; the others being Gallus' younger half-brother, Julian, and their cousin, Nepotian, each of whom was very young at the time.

Gallus was said by the historian Ammianus Marcellinus to have been very good looking, making particular note of his soft blond hair.

There is debate over where Gallus spent his youth.

One view is that he lived with Julian in Nicomedia under the care of Eusebius, who was the bishop of Nicomedia until 340, at which point, Eusebius was made bishop of Constantinople, which necessitated Gallus and Julian to follow him to that city.

It is believed that after the death of Eusebius in 341, Constantius then sent Gallus and Julian to continue their studies at the imperial household in Macellum, Cappadocia.

An alternative view claims that hints in the sources suggest that Gallus was sent to Ephesus to study, then to a type of exile in Tralles and from there to the imperial household in Macellum.

In 350, Magnentius, the commander of the Herculians and Iovians, the Imperial guard units, had rebelled and killed the emperor Constans, claiming the purple.

Constantius II prepares to move against the usurper, but needs a representative in the East, so he calls Gallus at Sirmium, raises him to the rank of caesar (15 March 351), gives him the name Constantius, and strengthens the bonds with his cousin by allowing Gallus to marry his sister Constantina.

Gallus and Constantina, who probably shares her brother's aim of controlling the young Caesar, set up residence in Antioch, arriving on May 7 of 351.

During the period between the passage of Constantius in the West and the arrival of Gallus in the East, or immediately after the arrival of the Caesar in Antioch, the Jews revolt in Palestine.

The Jewish rebellion is led by Isaac of Diocesarea (also known as Isaac of Sepphoris), which is aided by a certain Patricius, also known as Natrona, a name with messianic connotations, and has its epicenter in the town of Diocesarea.

The revolt begins with a night assault on the Roman garrison, which is destroyed, and allows the Jews to procure the necessary weapons.

Subsequently the rebels kill the people of different ethnicities, like the Greeks and the Samaritans.

Gallus  in 351 or 352 sends his magister equitum, Ursicinus, to forcefully put down the revolt.

Diocaesarea is razed to the ground; …

…Tiberias and …

…Diospolis, two of the cities conquered by the rebels, are almost completely destroyed, while Ursicinus also orders the killing of several thousands of rebels, even young ones.

A midrash suggests that Patricius was killed in the battle.

A permanent garrison occupies Galilee after the events.

Because the Talmud centers are in the cities affected, the Jewish teachings in the region are greatly weakened, and the centers of Jewish learning shift east to Mesopotamia.

The Fall of Gallus, the Rise of Julian, and the End of the Constantinian Dynasty (354–361 CE)

The final years of Constantius II’s reign (337–361 CE) were marked by internal power struggles, culminating in the execution of Gallus, the rise of Julian, and an impending civil war that was cut short by Constantius’ unexpected death.

1. The Execution of Constantius Gallus (354 CE)

• Constantius Gallus, a half-brother of Julian, had been appointed Caesar of the East in 351 CE to help manage the empire’s vast territories.
• Reports from Syria Palæstina revealed that Gallus had become violent and corrupt, ruling with brutality and executing imperial officials.
• Constantius II ordered Gallus’ arrest and execution in 354 CE, eliminating a potential rival but leaving himself with only one male relative—Julian.

2. The Rise of Julian as Caesar (355 CE)

• With Gallus gone, Constantius elevated Julian to the rank of Caesar in 355 CE, making him his last surviving relative.
• Julian, an intellectual and admirer of classical pagan philosophy, was sent to govern Gaul, where he proved to be an exceptional general and administrator.
• Over the next five years, he defended the Rhine frontier, winning major victories over the Franks and Alemanni.

3. Julian Declares Himself Augustus (360 CE)

• As Julian’s power and popularity grew, his troops in Gaul proclaimed him Augustus in 360 CE, challenging Constantius’ authority.
• Constantius saw this as an act of treason, leading to an inevitable civil war between the two emperors.

4. The Unexpected End of the Conflict (361 CE)

• As Constantius marched east to confront Julian, he suddenly fell ill in late 361 CE.
• Before his death, he unexpectedly named Julian as his successor, avoiding a full-scale civil war.
• With Constantius’ death, Julian became the undisputed ruler of the Roman Empire, marking the end of the Constantinian dynasty.

5. Conclusion: A Tumultuous Transfer of Power

• The execution of Gallus removed a brutal but politically valuable ally.
• Julian’s rise to power demonstrated that military success could challenge dynastic legitimacy.
• Constantius’ death in 361 CE allowed for a peaceful transition, but Julian’s rule would soon be marked by:
  • Radical religious policies aimed at restoring paganism in an empire that had become predominantly Christianized.
  • A Persian campaign (362–363 CE) that would ultimately lead to his untimely death.

Despite his military and administrative talents, Julian’s reign (361–363 CE) would be short-lived, and his efforts to reverse Christian dominance would fail, solidifying the empire’s eventual Christian character.