he Middle East: 1792–1803 CE

Expansion and Assertiveness of the Saudi-Wahhabi State

Under the determined leadership of Abdul Aziz ibn Muhammad ibn Saud, the Saudi-Wahhabi state continues its aggressive expansion throughout Arabia. By the early 1790s, Saudi forces solidify control over key strategic and economic centers, further entrenching their dominance and extending strict Wahhabi practices. This aggressive campaign culminates in the conquest of Ta'if in 1802 and the subsequent Wahhabi siege of the sacred city of Mecca in 1803. These successes not only boost their prestige but significantly enhance their economic and political leverage across the Arabian Peninsula.

Qajar Consolidation and Regional Influence

In Persia, the Qajar dynasty, under the firm rule of Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar and, following his assassination in 1797, his successor Fath-Ali Shah Qajar, continues to strengthen its political control. Agha Mohammad Khan decisively consolidates Persian territories, notably reclaiming Khorasan and establishing firm control over Georgia by reconquering Tbilisi in 1795. Following his death, Fath-Ali Shah maintains internal stability, secures the borders, and continues the centralization of administrative and military structures, laying the groundwork for Persia's future stability.

Continued Maritime Dominance of Oman

Under Sultan bin Ahmad al-Busaidi (1792–1804), Oman solidifies its maritime and commercial dominance. Sultan bin Ahmad expands naval capabilities and reinforces control over strategic coastal ports and islands along the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. The bustling port of Muscat remains an essential hub for trade, linking Persia, India, and East Africa. Oman's ruling family divides in 1793 into two main lines, with Sultan bin Ahmad's lineage controlling the maritime state, and the Qais branch overseeing the Al Batinah and Ar Rustaq regions. This maritime prosperity supports internal political cohesion and ensures the continued wealth and prominence of the Al-Busaidi dynasty.

Tribal Dynamics and Economic Prosperity in the Persian Gulf

In Qatar, the economic boom in Az Zubarah persists, driven by thriving trade and pearl diving. Tribal rivalries, notably between the Al Khalifa and the Al Jalahima clans, intensify significantly. In 1795, these rivalries culminate in the Al Khalifa conquest of Bahrain, shifting their economic focus away from Az Zubarah, which subsequently declines. The Al Jalahmas, dissatisfied with the Al Khalifa's claims, relocate along the Qatari coast to establish Al Khuwayr, becoming feared maritime raiders, particularly under their leader, Rahman ibn Jabir Al Jalahma. Meanwhile, the Al Thani clan maintains its presence in Qatar, increasingly aligned with Wahhabi principles.

The Al bu Falah clan establishes their headquarters at the site of Abu Dhabi town in 1795, allying themselves strategically with the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman against their rivals, the Qawasim pirates of Ra's al-Khaimah and ash-Shariqah sheikhdoms.

Further Decline of Ottoman Influence and Growing Tribal Autonomy

Ottoman authority over its Arab territories continues to wane dramatically, as powerful tribal confederations such as the Muntafiq and the Kurdish Baban Dynasty maintain considerable autonomy in Iraq and Kurdistan, respectively. The weakening grip of the Ottomans results in frequent clashes and localized governance, underscoring the Empire's inability to effectively administer distant provinces. The declining Ottoman presence encourages the further rise of independent tribal and regional leaders, who increasingly negotiate their positions with minimal Ottoman interference.

Legacy of the Era

The era from 1792 to 1803 marks a critical period of territorial and political consolidation for the Saudi-Wahhabi state and the Qajar dynasty, as well as sustained maritime economic prosperity for Oman. The fragmentation of Ottoman authority, coupled with dynamic tribal rivalries and shifting economic fortunes in the Persian Gulf region, establishes enduring patterns of decentralized governance and localized autonomy, significantly shaping the geopolitical landscape of the Middle East for decades to follow.

Mahmud, assisted by his vizier, Fatteh Khan Barakzay, eldest son of Sardar Payenda Khan, and by Persian ruler Fath 'Ali Shah, takes Qandahar and advances on Kabul.

Zaman, in India, hurries back to Afghanistan, where, in 1800, he is handed over to his brother Mahmud, blinded, and imprisoned.

As Shah, Mahmud leaves affairs of state to Fath Khan.

Some of the chiefs who harbor grievances against the King or his ministers join forces and invite Zaman's brother Shoja' to Kabul.

The origins of the first full scale Russo-Persian War can be traced back to the decision of Tsar Paul to annex Georgia (December 1800) after Erekle II, who had been appointed as ruler of Kartli several years earlier by his ruler Nader Shah, made a plea to Christian Russia in the Treaty of Georgievsk of 1783 to be incorporated into the empire.

After Paul’s assassination (March 11, 1801), the activist policy had been continued by his successor, Tsar Alexander, aimed at establishing Russian control over the khanates of the eastern Caucasus.

In 1803, the newly appointed commander of Russian forces in the Caucasus, Paul Tsitsianov, had attacked Ganja and captures its citadel on January 15, 1804.

Ganja's governor, Javad Khan Qajar, is killed, and a large number of the inhabitants slaughtered.

Abbas Mirza’s army arrives too late and retires to the south.

The Qajar ruler, Fat′h-Ali Shah, sees the Russian threat to Armenia, Karabagh, and Azerbaijan not only as a source of instability on his northwestern frontier but as a direct challenge to Qajar authority.

Tsitsianov and three thousand men had marched south in June toward Echmiadzin in the Yerevan Khanate, but had been were driven back by Abbas Mirza and his force.

They had then moved east and besieged Yerevan from July to September.

The local khan holds the citadel, the Russians hold the town, and the Persians hold the surrounding countryside.

Weakened by disease and fighting on half-rations, the Russians withdraw to Georgia, losing more men along the way.

The Russians take the Shuragel Sultanate, a small area at the junction of Georgia, the Yerevan Khanate and Turkey and including the militarily important town of Gyumri, in early 1805.

The Karabakh Khanate submit to the Russians on May 14 and and the Shaki Khanate on May 21.

In response to the loss of Karabakh, Abbas Mirza occupies the Askeran Fortress at the mouth of a valley that leads from the plain southwest to Shusha, the capital of Karabakh.

The Russians respond by sending Koryagin to take the Persian fort of Shakh-Bulakh.

Abbas Mirza marches north and besieges the place.

On hearing of the approach of another army under Fath Ali, Koryagin slips out at night and heads for Shusha.

He is caught at the Askeran gorge but not defeated, and additional Russian troops relieve the blockade of Koryagin and Shusha.

Abbas Mirza, seeing that the main Russian force has pushed far to the southeast, makes a wide swing north and besieges Ganja.

Six hundred Russian infantry route his camp at Shamkir on July 27.

A naval attack on Baku in September had failed, but in November Tsitsianov marches east toward Baku, en route accepting the submission of the Shirvan Khanate on December 27.

The Caspian Flotilla under General Zavalivshin had laid siege to Baku but had been driven off by the Khan of Quba.

Tsitsianov had gone east with sixteen hundred men and ten guns, crossing the Shirvan Khanate, which he had annexed on the way, and arriving at Baku before February 8. 1806.

The town elders had delivered him the keys to the city, but he returns the keys asking to receive them from the khan in person.

The khan rides out with an escort, Tsitsianov advances with two other men and is shot dead.

The guns of Baku open up on the Russian army and Zavalivshin again chooses to withdraw.

Ivan Gudovich, named commander-in-chief in the Caucasus in 1806, replaces Tsitsianov as Viceroy.

The disaster of Tsitsianov's death and Zavalivshin's apparent cowardice is retrieved by General Glazenap, who commands the Line.

He crosses the Aktash country to Tarki where the Shamkhal joins him.

Knowing that the khan of Derbent is unpopular, the Shamkhal sends agents to stir up trouble.

When the Russians cross the border, the khan is expelled by his own subjects and Derbent is occupied for the fourth and final time  on June 22, 1806).