Near East (909–766 BCE): Consolidation, Conflict, and Cultural Flourishing

Nubian Expansion and Egyptian Shifts

During the late ninth and early eighth centuries BCE, Egypt experiences significant geopolitical transformations. Kashta, a Kushite king based in Napata, expands his influence northward into Upper Egypt, notably installing his daughter Amenirdis I as the prospective God's Wife of Amun in Thebes. This effectively legitimizes Nubian dominance, paving the way for his son Piye to consolidate Kushite power across Egypt around 747 BCE. Under Piye's rule, Egyptian cultural and religious traditions experience revitalization, with an increasing adoption of Nubian elements.

Israel, Judah, and Regional Rivalries

This period sees Israel and Judah embroiled in frequent conflicts, both internally and with neighboring states. Notably, the Mesha Stele, or Moabite Stone, crafted by King Mesha of Moab around 850 BCE, provides critical historical insights. This stele details Mesha’s rebellion against Israelite domination under the "House of Omri," referencing the Israelite god Yahweh and potentially the earliest extrabiblical mention of the "House of David." The kingdoms of Edom and Moab also rise prominently, intensifying regional dynamics, with Edom gaining significance through increased trade and mining activities.

Israel under Omri (c. 876–869 BCE) and his son Ahab (c. 869–850 BCE) emerges as a significant regional power, marked by extensive military campaigns, construction projects, and an influential Phoenician alliance forged through Ahab’s marriage to Jezebel, daughter of Ithbaal of Tyre and Sidon. The internal religious turmoil intensifies with the clash between Phoenician Baal worship and Hebrew monotheism, particularly under the prophets Elijah and Elisha.

Assyrian Dominance and Local Autonomy

The Assyrian Empire, under rulers such as Shalmaneser III and later Tiglath-Pileser III, exerts considerable influence over the Near East, frequently subduing and extracting tribute from kingdoms such as Israel and the city-states of Phoenicia. Despite periodic revolts by city-states like Tyre and regional leaders, Assyria largely maintains its dominance through military might and political coercion, reshaping the political landscape significantly.

Sabaean Ascendancy and Arabian Trade

To the south, the Sabaean Kingdom in southern Arabia (biblical Sheba), beginning around the tenth century BCE, becomes a vital trade nexus connecting Arabia, Syria, and Mesopotamia. Controlling major caravan routes and flourishing economically, the Sabaeans significantly influence commerce and cultural exchanges across the Near East.

Greek Expansion in Anatolia and Cyprus

The collapse of Mycenaean civilization and the subsequent Dorian invasion in mainland Greece prompt waves of Ionian and Dorian refugees to establish new settlements in Asia Minor. The Ionian coast flourishes culturally and commercially with prominent cities such as Phocaea, Ephesus, and Miletus. Concurrently, the Dorians establish influential cities like Halicarnassus and Knidos, integrating into regional power dynamics through leagues like the Dorian Hexapolis. Cyprus also emerges as a significant cultural and commercial hub, with a Phoenician colony established at Citium around 800 BCE, contributing to the island's complex demographic and cultural landscape.

Cultural and Linguistic Developments

The Hebrew alphabet, evolving from Phoenician script, is reflected in early texts like the Gezer Calendar (tenth century BCE), demonstrating early literacy and agricultural traditions among the Israelites. Concurrently, the Elohist (E) textual source emerges, emphasizing Israel's northern kingdom perspectives, portraying a less anthropomorphic deity, Elohim, and competing religious practices.

Legacy of the Age

This age marks a profound consolidation and conflict across the Near East, with regional powers negotiating their positions amidst shifting alliances and rivalries. The cultural and political developments—ranging from Nubian expansion in Egypt, Hebrew religious struggles, Assyrian dominance, Greek colonization in Anatolia, to burgeoning Arabian trade—lay essential foundations for the complex historical trajectories that continue to shape the region's future.

Tyre, which probably enjoys some primacy over the other cities of Phoenicia in the tenth and eleventh centuries, is ruled by kings whose power is limited by a merchant oligarchy.

The thirteenth-century BCE sarcophagus from Byblos (mentioned earlier in the text) is reused for King Hiram of Tyre in the tenth century BCE.

The Phoenician culture, a cosmopolitan blend of Egyptian, Anatolian, Greek and Mesopotamian influences in religion and literature, reaches its greatest height during this age.

The Bible names the notorious Jezebel, wife of King Ahab, as the daughter of Ethbaal, “king of Tyre and Sidon.” (The Old Testament also tells of Queen Jezebel employing the naturally occurring sulfide of antimony as a cosmetic to beautify her eyes.)

According to the Hebrew scriptures, the city of Tyre supplies cedars, carpenters, masons, and bronzesmiths for the kings of Israel.

The Near East (873–862 BCE): The Ascendancy of Omri and Alliances in Israel and Judah

Omri's Consolidation and Expansion in Israel

In the Northern Kingdom of Israel, King Omri continues to solidify his rule following the turbulent years of dynastic conflict. After successfully overcoming opposition, Omri further establishes Israel's strength by conquering the territory of Moab. Recognizing the importance of strategic alliances, Omri fosters diplomatic ties with the Phoenician city of Tyre, significantly enhancing Israel's economic and military stature in the region. Around 875 BCE, Omri moves Israel’s capital permanently to the fortified city of Samaria, thereby anchoring his political legacy and stabilizing the kingdom.

Omri’s reputation extends well beyond his lifetime, with Assyrian records frequently referencing Israel as "the land of Omri." Despite his negative portrayal by Biblical authors, contemporary historians regard Omri as one of the most influential and effective rulers in Israel's history.

Ahab's Succession and Further Alliances

Following Omri’s death, his son Ahab ascends the throne, inheriting a kingdom poised for regional prominence. Ahab's marriage to Jezebel, daughter of Ithobaal of Tyre, solidifies Israel’s alliance with the Phoenicians. Under Ahab’s leadership, the longstanding hostility between Israel and Judah finally comes to an end, as he secures a crucial alliance with King Jehoshaphat of Judah, thus concluding nearly half a century of inter-kingdom warfare.

During his reign, Ahab actively engages in military confrontations with the kingdom of Aram (Syria) and undertakes significant infrastructure projects, notably the extensive reconstruction and expansion of the ancient city of Jericho. Today, Jericho is recognized as one of the oldest continuously inhabited settlements on Earth, underscoring its historical importance during Ahab's time.

Stability and Reform under Jehoshaphat in Judah

In the southern kingdom of Judah, King Asa dies in 871 BCE after a long but troubled reign marked by religious reform and political controversy. He is succeeded by his son Jehoshaphat, who assumes the throne at the age of thirty-five and reigns for twenty-five years.

Jehoshaphat initially focuses on strengthening Judah's defenses against potential threats from Israel, yet soon capitalizes on the newfound peace established through his alliance with Ahab. During his rule, Jehoshaphat emphasizes religious education and judicial reform, dispatching priests and Levites throughout the kingdom to instruct the people in the Law, actions praised by Biblical chroniclers for fostering spiritual renewal and stability.

Dynastic Stability in Egypt

In Egypt, the Twenty-second Dynasty sees continued stability with the ascension of Osorkon II in 874 BCE, succeeding Takelot I. Osorkon II’s reign begins amidst significant natural events, notably an exceptionally high flooding of the Nile in 872 BCE that inundates the Temple of Luxor, a sign interpreted variously by contemporary Egyptians.

Summary of the Era

The period from 873 to 862 BCE is characterized by strategic political alliances and strengthened governance across the Near East. In Israel, Omri’s foundational stability paves the way for Ahab’s expansive diplomacy and construction projects, while Judah experiences a period of internal consolidation and religious reform under Jehoshaphat. Concurrently, Egypt maintains its dynastic continuity and relative peace, highlighting a contrasting regional narrative marked by stability amidst the ongoing political complexities in neighboring kingdoms.

King Omri, after conquering Moab, forms an alliance with the Phoenician city of Tyre and moves the capital of Israel to Samaria.(Omri, whose name appears frequently in Assyrian inscriptions, is mentioned briefly and unfavorably in I Kings 16 Micah 6:16 but is thought by modern scholars to have been one of the most important rulers of the northern kingdom.)

Ahab, who succeeds Omri as king of Israel, concludes an alliance with King Asa of Judah, ending the nearly half-century of warfare between the two nations.

Omri has reestablished Israel's economic and military significance among the Syrian and Palestinian minor kingdoms, so much so that years after his death the Assyrians will refer to the northern kingdom as “the land of Omri” He leaves to his son Ahab an empire that comprises not only territory east of the Jordan River, in Gilead and probably Bashan, but also the land of Moab, whose king is tributary.

The southern kingdom of Judah, if not actually subject to Omri, is certainly a subordinate ally.

Ahab's marriage to Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal of Sidon, reported in the Bible, forges an alliance with the Phoenicians.

According to the Hebrew scriptures, King Ahab leads Israel in incessant warfare with neighboring Aram (Syria) and undertakes large-scale construction projects in the cities of Israel, …

…greatly expanding the city of Jericho.

Today the capital of the Jericho Governate, its current population of more than twenty thousand occupies the lowest permanently inhabited site on earth.

Jericho is also believed to be the world’s oldest continuously inhabited city.

The Near East (849–838 BCE): Dynastic Upheaval and Religious Conflicts

The End of Ahab’s Dynasty

During this era, political turmoil and religious struggles profoundly reshape the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Following the death of King Ahab, the northern kingdom continues under the rule of his son Jehoram, who maintains the alliance with Judah forged by his father. However, Jehoram’s reign is marred by continuous warfare, notably an unsuccessful attempt to quell the Moabite revolt alongside King Jehoshaphat of Judah.

Jehoram later attempts to recapture Ramoth-gilead from the Aramean king Hazael, suffering severe wounds in battle. As he convalesces in Jezreel, his rule abruptly ends with a violent coup initiated by his own commander, Jehu. Acting on instructions from the prophet Elijah, Jehu leads a ruthless revolt around 843 BCE, eliminating Jehoram, his ally Ahaziah, king of Judah, and numerous royal family members, effectively exterminating the Omride dynasty. Notably, Jehu orders the defenestration of Jezebel, whose death—foretold by Elijah—symbolizes the end of the Phoenician alliance and the suppression of Baal worship in Israel.

Religious Strife and Prophetic Influence

Central to these upheavals is a fierce struggle over religious practices. Jezebel’s zealous promotion of Baal worship, involving hundreds of Baal prophets, is directly opposed by the prophetic activities of Elijah and his successor Elisha. Elisha, characterized by political astuteness, significantly shapes Israel's religious and political trajectory, navigating the complexities left by Elijah’s confrontational legacy.

The revolution led by Jehu, driven by religious fervor against Baal worship, underscores the continuing internal conflicts over Israelite religious identity. Although Jehu’s coup secures his ascendancy and ends the Omride dynasty, it simultaneously weakens Israel’s strategic alliances, leaving the kingdom vulnerable to external threats, notably from Assyria under Shalmaneser III. By 841 BCE, Assyria exacts tribute from Jehu, as well as from the Phoenician city of Sidon, highlighting Israel's reduced regional influence.

Judah’s Internal Struggles and Edomite Revolt

In Judah, following Jehoshaphat’s death in 849 BCE, his son Jehoram inherits the throne. Jehoram's reign, however, is plagued by severe internal unrest and external threats. His marriage to Athaliah, daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, strengthens the alliance with Israel but introduces Baal worship into Judah. Jehoram violently consolidates power by massacring his kinsmen, but his reign is destabilized by revolts from Edom and Libnah, and invasions by Philistines and Arabs, culminating in a devastating sack of Jerusalem.

After Jehoram's death, his son Ahaziah ascends the throne but reigns briefly until he is killed during Jehu’s purge. This opens the door for Athaliah’s rule. Intent on promoting Baal worship, Athaliah seeks to eliminate the Davidic line loyal to Yahweh, sparing only the infant heir Jehoash (Joash), hidden away by priests loyal to Yahweh. After six or seven years, Athaliah's reign ends violently through a priestly-led revolt, reinstating traditional worship and the Davidic lineage.

Ezion-Geber and Regional Shifts

The strategic port city of Ezion-Geber, rebuilt under Jehoshaphat, suffers destruction again around the mid-ninth century BCE, likely due to the Edomite rebellion against Judah. This event symbolizes broader shifts in regional power dynamics and the ongoing struggle to control economically critical routes.

Summary of the Era

The years 849–838 BCE mark a period of intense dynastic upheaval and religious conflict within and between the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The violent end of the Omride dynasty under Jehu profoundly reshapes Israel’s internal and external political landscape. Concurrently, Judah experiences turmoil through revolts and invasions, complicated by religious divisions introduced by Athaliah. This tumultuous period underscores the complex interplay between dynastic politics, religious identity, and regional power struggles in the Near East.