Jacqueline of Bavaria’s Second Marriage and the Resurgence of the Hook and Cod Wars (1418)

By 1418, Jacqueline of Bavaria, unable to maintain her position as sovereign of Holland, Zeeland, and Hainaut alone, was forced to remarry for political protection. Her uncle and guardian, John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, arranged a marriage between Jacqueline and her cousin, John IV, Duke of Brabant and Limburg.

At the same time, her other uncle, John III of Bavaria-Straubing, renounced his ecclesiastical career, reclaiming secular rule in Holland and Zeeland, which reignited the Hook and Cod civil war.

I. Jacqueline’s Marriage to John IV of Brabant (1418)

• John the Fearless, aiming to strengthen Burgundian influence in the Low Countries, orchestrated Jacqueline’s marriage to John IV, Duke of Brabant and Limburg.
• This marriage was intended to:
  • Consolidate Jacqueline’s rule by securing an alliance with Brabant.
  • Bolster Burgundian dominance over Holland and Zeeland.
  • Prevent her uncle John III of Bavaria from seizing control of her inherited lands.

However, this political union proved weak, as John IV lacked the military strength or political will to effectively defend Jacqueline’s claims.

II. John III of Bavaria’s Return and the Hook and Cod Civil War Resumes

• John III of Bavaria-Straubing, formerly Bishop of Liège, abandoned his religious office and reclaimed secular power in Holland and Zeeland.
• His return reignited the Hook and Cod Wars, the ongoing struggle between rival factions for control over Holland:
  • The Hook Party (Hoeken) supported Jacqueline, favoring local autonomy and noble control.
  • The Cod Party (Kabeljauwen) aligned with John III of Bavaria, favoring centralized governance and Burgundian influence.

This civil war further destabilized the Low Countries, drawing in neighboring principalities and intensifying Burgundian intervention.

III. Consequences and Jacqueline’s Continued Struggles

• Jacqueline’s marriage to John IV of Brabant failed to provide the support she needed against her uncle’s claims.
• The Hook and Cod Wars continued to destabilize Holland, making it increasingly vulnerable to outside intervention.
• Burgundian influence continued to expand, as John the Fearless sought greater control over the fractured territories of the Low Countries.

The marriage of Jacqueline of Bavaria to John IV of Brabant in 1418 was a strategic but ultimately ineffective attempt to secure her rule, as the Hook and Cod Wars reignited with the return of John III of Bavaria, further fragmenting Holland and paving the way for Burgundian dominance.

he Succession Conflict Between John III the Pitiless and Jacqueline of Bavaria (1419)

Following the death of John the Fearless in 1419, John III, called "the Pitiless", Bishop of Liège and former Regent of Holland and Zeeland, immediately launched a civil war against his niece, Jacqueline of Bavaria, and her husband, John IV, Duke of Brabant. With the support of Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund, John III sought to seize control of Holland and Zeeland, challenging Jacqueline’s legitimate rule.

I. John the Pitiless’ Alliances and Military Campaign

• John III aligned himself with powerful figures, including:
  • Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, who had just succeeded his assassinated father, John the Fearless.
  • The city of Dordrecht, a key stronghold that favored Burgundian influence over Jacqueline’s rule.
• In 1419, John III attempted to force Jacqueline and John IV out of power by besieging Dordrecht.

II. The Siege of Dordrecht and the Power-Sharing Agreement (1419)

• The siege of Dordrecht failed, as John IV of Brabant and his forces could not decisively defeat John III.
• To prevent further conflict, John IV agreed to a power-sharing arrangement with John III, establishing a joint administration.
• Jacqueline, despite being the rightful heir, was excluded from political power due to her gender and the patriarchal structure of medieval governance.

III. Consequences and the Continued Struggle for Holland and Zeeland

• The compromise between John III and John IV was unstable, as tensions between Burgundian-backed forces and Jacqueline’s supporters remained unresolved.
• Jacqueline’s continued exclusion from power would push her into further conflicts, leading to her eventual loss of sovereignty to Burgundy.
• Philip the Good of Burgundy’s involvement signaled the beginning of Burgundian expansion into the Low Countries, which would ultimately absorb Jacqueline’s territories into the Burgundian state.

The conflict between John III the Pitiless and Jacqueline of Bavaria in 1419 marked the beginning of the end of Jacqueline’s independent rule, as the Low Countries drifted further into Burgundian control, shaping the political landscape of the 15th century Netherlands.

The Hook and Cod Wars and the Struggle for Holland, Zeeland, and Hainaut (1417–1420)

The Hook and Cod Wars, a long-running conflict over control of Holland, Zeeland, and Hainaut, reignited in 1417upon the death of William VI, Count of Holland and Hainaut. His daughter, Jacqueline of Bavaria, and his brother, John III of Bavaria-Straubing (known as John the Pitiless), both laid claim to the inheritance, plunging the region into a civil war.

I. The Succession Crisis and the Role of the Holy Roman Emperor (1417)

• John III of Bavaria, already Bishop of Liège, rejected holy orders and took secular control of Holland, Zeeland, and Hainaut, claiming them over Jacqueline.
• With the support of Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund (his wife's uncle), John III launched a civil war against Jacqueline and her husband, John IV, Duke of Brabant.

II. The Role of Philip the Good and the Siege of Dordrecht (1419)

• When Philip the Good became Duke of Burgundy in 1419, he initially sought to maintain the status quo, avoiding direct intervention in the conflict.
• John the Pitiless, however, openly supported Philip and the city of Dordrecht, making Holland a battleground between opposing factions.
• A siege of Dordrecht in 1419 failed, leading to a compromise between John IV of Brabant and John III:
  • They agreed to a joint administration, though Jacqueline was excluded from political power due to her gender.

III. The Treaty of Sint-Maartensdijk (April 1420): Jacqueline’s Political Defeat

• John IV of Brabant, heavily in debt, chose financial stability over military intervention, mortgaging Holland and Zeeland to John the Pitiless under the Treaty of Sint-Maartensdijk (April 1420).
• Under the treaty:
  • John III was granted full control over Holland and Zeeland for twelve years.
  • John IV and Jacqueline were compensated financially, but the subjects of Holland, Zeeland, and Friesland were released from their oath of allegiance to Jacqueline.
• As Jacqueline lost control of her patrimony, John IV also pledged Hainaut, further undermining her authority.

IV. Jacqueline’s Response: The Push for Separation

• By 1420, Jacqueline and her supporters began seeking a formal separation from John IV, as he had:
  • Abandoned her cause.
  • Financially weakened her position.
  • Failed to defend her claims against John the Pitiless.
• This led to Jacqueline’s increasing opposition to both her husband and uncle, setting the stage for further conflicts and her eventual flight to England in 1421.

V. Consequences and the Path to Burgundian Dominance

• Philip the Good continued to watch the situation carefully, as John IV’s incompetence made Burgundian intervention increasingly inevitable.
• The Treaty of Sint-Maartensdijk effectively sidelined Jacqueline, paving the way for Burgundy’s eventual absorption of Holland, Zeeland, and Hainaut.

The Treaty of Sint-Maartensdijk (1420) marked a decisive step in Jacqueline’s loss of power, as her husband prioritized his financial stability over defending her inheritance, leaving her isolated and politically weakened. This set the stage for further conflicts, leading to Burgundian consolidation of the Low Countries in the coming years.

Political Crisis in Brabant and the Separation of Jacqueline and John IV (1420)

By 1420, tensions within the Duchy of Brabant had escalated due to John IV’s reliance on advisors from the Cod faction, a political alignment that alienated both his wife, Jacqueline of Bavaria, and the traditional aristocracy of Brabant.

When Jacqueline left her husband in 1420, the States of Brabant turned against John IV, appointing his brother, Philip of Saint-Pol, as regent. A forceful reaction from John IV was prevented by a guild uprising in Brussels, which temporarily compelled him to accept their demands.

I. Political Discontent in Brabant

• The Cod faction—which supported Burgundian centralization and mercantile interests—dominated John IV’s court, creating resentment among the cities and aristocracy, who had been more autonomous under his father’s rule.
• This political friction extended to his marriage, as Jacqueline, a supporter of the rival Hook faction, was increasingly estranged from her husband’s governance.

II. Jacqueline’s Departure and the Regency of Philip of Saint-Pol

• In 1420, Jacqueline left John IV, signaling a complete breakdown of their marriage and political alliance.
• The States of Brabant, seeing an opportunity to curb John IV’s power, sided with Jacqueline.
• They appointed John IV’s brother, Philip of Saint-Pol, as regent, effectively stripping John IV of control over Brabant.

III. The Brussels Guild Uprising and John IV’s Weakening Position

• John IV attempted to resist the States of Brabant’s decision, but his authority was undermined by an uprising of the Brussels guilds.
• The guilds, unhappy with his governance, prevented any military action, forcing him to accept the regency of his brother, Philip.
• This left John IV politically weakened, with his rule severely curtailed in Brabant.

IV. Consequences and the Growing Influence of Burgundy

• The crisis in Brabant further destabilized John IV’s rule, weakening his ability to assert authority in Holland and Zeeland.
• Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, saw an opportunity to intervene, gradually expanding Burgundian influence in Brabant and Holland.
• This episode marked the beginning of Jacqueline’s larger struggle to reclaim her inheritance, leading to her eventual alliance with England in 1421.

The marital and political crisis of 1420 in Brabant exposed John IV’s weaknesses, leading to his loss of power to his brother, Philip of Saint-Pol, while further paving the way for Burgundian dominance in the Low Countries.

Jacqueline of Bavaria’s Flight to England and the Changing Political Landscape in the Low Countries (1421)

By 1421, the political landscape of the Low Countries and France had been transformed due to the assassination of John the Fearless (1419), the Treaty of Troyes (1420), and the continuing civil war over the succession in Holland, Zeeland, and Hainaut.

As John IV of Brabant’s rule proved increasingly disastrous, Jacqueline of Bavaria sought to annul her marriage, but after losing her last stronghold in Leiden, she was forced to flee to England on March 6, 1421, where King Henry V welcomed her with great honor.

I. The Assassination of John the Fearless and the Treaty of Troyes (1419–1420)

• John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, was murdered at Montereau in September 1419 during a meeting with the French Dauphin Charles.
• As a result, Charles was blamed as an accomplice, leading to his disinheritance under the Treaty of Troyes (1420).
• The treaty recognized Henry V of England as the rightful heir to the French throne, effectively excluding Charles from the line of succession.
• This further complicated the war in the Low Countries, as Burgundy, England, and local factions competed for control over Holland and Zeeland.

II. Jacqueline’s Struggles Against John IV of Brabant and John III of Bavaria

• By February 1421, Jacqueline publicly denounced her husband, John IV of Brabant, citing his destructive policies and seeking annulment of their marriage.
• Meanwhile, her uncle and rival, John III of Bavaria-Straubing (John the Pitiless), continued his fight to seize full control of Holland and Zeeland.
• The conflict between Jacqueline’s supporters (the Hook faction) and the Cod faction (backing John III) escalated, culminating in the fall of Leiden, the last city loyal to Jacqueline.

III. The Fall of Leiden and Jacqueline’s Flight to England (March 1421)

• With Leiden captured by John III’s forces, Jacqueline was forced to concede defeat.
• On March 6, 1421, she fled to England, seeking aid from King Henry V.
• Henry, eager to strengthen English influence in the Low Countries, received her with a glamorous reception, signaling that he might support her claims.

IV. Consequences and Jacqueline’s Next Moves

• With Henry V’s backing, Jacqueline hoped to regain her lost territories, though her fight for Holland and Zeeland was far from over.
• However, the situation in England soon changed dramatically, as Henry V died unexpectedly in 1422, leading to new political uncertainties.
• Her return to the Low Countries would be marked by continued conflict, shifting alliances, and eventual Burgundian dominance.

Jacqueline of Bavaria’s flight to England in 1421 marked a turning point in her struggle for power, as she sought support from Henry V after losing her last stronghold in the Low Countries. However, her political future remained uncertain as English and Burgundian ambitions continued to shape the region.

Jacqueline of Hainaut is an honored guest at the court of England, and when the future Henry VI was born, Jacqueline had been made one of his godparents.

It is only after the unexpected death of Henry V in 1422 that Jacqueline obtains a dubious divorce from John IV of Brabant, valid only in England, that allows her third marriage with Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, Henry V's brother and Regent of the Kingdom on behalf of his infant nephew Henry VI.

However, as not all rules are observed, the marriage is arranged in haste and in secret sometime between February and March 7, 1422, in the town of Hadleigh, Essex.

The news of this marriage shocks everyone.

It is announced on October 15, 1422, that Jacqueline not only is married with one of the most powerful princes of Europe, but also she is rumored to be pregnant with his child.

To secure her position, Jacqueline has to obtain the formal annulment of her marriage with John IV of Brabant, but when she asks Pope Martin V in Rome and Antipope Benedict XIII in Avignon to resolve her irregular marital status, her uncle John III intervenes against it.

Unexpectedly, Philip the Good, who wants to prevent an English invasion, supports the annulment of her cousin's marriage with the Duke of Brabant.

Philip of Saint-Pol and the Political Struggles in Brabant (1419–1422)

Philip of Saint-Pol, younger brother of Duke John IV of Brabant, played a crucial role in the political turmoil of Brabant and the dynastic conflicts surrounding Jacqueline of Bavaria. His tenure as ruwaard (regent) of Brabant (1420–1421) saw rising opposition to his brother’s rule, but following their reconciliation in 1421, Philip stepped down, allowing John IV to regain full ducal power.

To secure support from the citizenry, John IV expanded city privileges and increased the authority of the States of Brabant in 1422, an act known as the Nieuw Regiment. This strengthened his position in the ongoing conflict against Jacqueline of Bavaria and her new husband, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, whom he refused to recognize as her legitimate spouse.

I. Philip of Saint-Pol’s Role in Brabant (1419–1421)

• In 1419, Philip commanded the Burgundian forces occupying Paris, enforcing Burgundian control in the aftermath of John the Fearless’ assassination.
• By 1420, he returned to Brabant, where the populace grew dissatisfied with John IV’s misadministration.
• Philip was declared ruwaard (regent) of Brabant, effectively stripping John IV of power.

II. The Reconciliation of 1421 and the Nieuw Regiment (1422)

• In 1421, Philip reconciled with his brother and resigned as regent, restoring John IV’s ducal authority.
• To secure the support of the Brabantine citizenry, John IV granted expanded privileges to the cities and increased the power of the States of Brabant in 1422.
• This measure, known as the Nieuw Regiment, gave the Brabantine Estates more influence over governance, strengthening urban autonomy while stabilizing ducal power.

III. The Brabantine Support for John IV Against Jacqueline of Bavaria (1422–1428)

• With Brabant now behind him, John IV focused on defending his authority against Jacqueline of Bavaria, his estranged wife.
• Jacqueline had remarried Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, who pressed her claim to Holland and Zeeland.
• John IV never accepted the annulment of his marriage to Jacqueline, and he was later vindicated by Pope Martin V in 1428 (albeit posthumously), further undermining Jacqueline’s legitimacy.

IV. Consequences and Legacy

• The Nieuw Regiment (1422) helped balance the power dynamics in Brabant, allowing greater urban autonomy while preserving ducal authority.
• The dispute over Jacqueline’s marriage contributed to the larger struggle for control over Holland, Zeeland, and Hainaut, which would ultimately be decided in favor of Burgundy.
• Philip of Saint-Pol’s brief regency (1420–1421) and reconciliation with John IV played a pivotal role in shaping Brabant’s political structure in the early 15th century.

The power struggle between John IV, Jacqueline of Bavaria, and Humphrey of Gloucester defined the political landscape of Brabant and the Low Countries, as the ducal house of Burgundy gradually absorbed more territories through calculated diplomacy and military action.

The Founding of the University of Leuven (1425): A Landmark in Higher Education

In 1425, the civil administration of Leuven, with the support of John IV, Duke of Brabant, formally requested the Holy See to establish a university. In response, Pope Martin V issued a papal bull on December 9, 1425, founding the University of Leuven (Studium Generale), making it one of the oldest universities in the Low Countries and a significant center of learning in Catholic Europe.

I. Institutional Independence and Language of Instruction

• Unlike many universities of the time, the University of Leuven was institutionally independent of the local ecclesiastical hierarchy, giving it greater academic autonomy.
• Latin was established as the sole language of instruction, a practice that continued until the university’s abolition in 1797 during the French Revolutionary Wars.

II. Academic Model and Early Influence

• The university was modeled on the leading institutions of the period, particularly:
  • The University of Paris (noted for its theology and philosophy).
  • The University of Cologne (famous for law and ecclesiastical studies).
  • The University of Vienna (a major center for medieval scholarship).
• It quickly became a major intellectual hub in the Burgundian Netherlands, attracting scholars, theologians, and jurists.

III. Legacy and Successor Institutions

• Though dissolved in 1797 under French Revolutionary rule, the university’s legacy continued through:
  • Two successor institutions that still exist today, considered among the oldest Catholic universities in the world.
• The University of Leuven played a crucial role in European intellectual life, influencing theology, humanism, and scientific thought.

IV. Conclusion: A Lasting Academic Institution

The University of Leuven, founded in 1425, became one of the most significant centers of learning in the Catholic world, contributing to scholarship, law, and theology for centuries. Its institutional independence, commitment to Latin instruction, and alignment with leading universities of the time ensured its status as a premier academic institution in the Low Countries and beyond.

Jacqueline of Bavaria, Humphrey of Gloucester, and the Burgundian-English Struggle for Holland and Hainaut (1424–1425)

By autumn 1424, Jacqueline of Bavaria and her second husband, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, relocated to Gloucester’s ancestral lands in England. During this time, Jacqueline suffered a personal tragedy, giving birth to a stillborn child, her only recorded pregnancy.

Shortly thereafter, the couple returned to the Low Countries, aiming to assert their rule over Hainaut, Holland, and Zeeland—territories Jacqueline had inherited but which remained contested by Burgundian forces.

I. Humphrey Declares Himself Ruler of Jacqueline’s Inherited Territories (December 1424 – January 1425)

• Jacqueline and Humphrey landed in Calais and, by late November 1424, entered Mons, the capital of Hainaut.
• On December 5, 1424, the Hainaut States formally recognized Humphrey as their sovereign Count, effectively rejecting Burgundian authority.
• On January 3, 1425, Humphrey asserted his full claim, signing documents with the grandiose title:
  • “Humphrey, by the grace of God’s son, brother and uncle of kings, Duke of Gloucester, Count of Hainaut, Holland, Zeeland, and Pembroke, Lord of Friesland, and Grand Chamberlain of England.”

This public proclamation directly challenged the claims of both the Duke of Brabant and the Duke of Burgundy.

II. The Death of John III of Bavaria and the Burgundian Response (January 1425)

• On January 6, 1425, John III of Bavaria, Jacqueline’s longtime rival for Holland and Zeeland, died suddenly—apparently poisoned.
• With John III dead, John IV, Duke of Brabant, reasserted his claim over Holland, Zeeland, and Hainaut, once again challenging Jacqueline and Humphrey’s authority.
• As he had done before, John IV turned to Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, naming him:
  • Regent of Holland and Zeeland.
  • His heir, should he die without issue.

This maneuver effectively transferred control over Holland and Zeeland to Burgundy, dramatically weakening Jacqueline’s position.

III. The Burgundian Campaign Against the English and Jacqueline (1425)

• Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, launched a military campaign to assert his authority over Jacqueline’s contested lands.
• Burgundian forces decisively pushed back the English, forcing Humphrey’s troops to withdraw.
• By the end of the campaign, the English were completely ousted, and Philip consolidated control over Holland and Zeeland, effectively eliminating Jacqueline and Humphrey’s claim to the territories.

IV. Consequences and Jacqueline’s Diminishing Power

• The failure of the English to maintain control over Holland and Zeeland left Jacqueline politically isolated.
• The Burgundian expansion into the Low Countries continued, solidifying Philip the Good’s dominance in the region.
• Humphrey of Gloucester soon returned to England, leaving Jacqueline to face her fate alone in the Burgundian-controlled Low Countries.

By 1425, Jacqueline’s bid to rule independently had collapsed, as Burgundy successfully eliminated English influence in Holland and Zeeland, paving the way for the full Burgundian takeover of her territories.

Jacqueline of Bavaria’s Escape and the Renewed Struggle for Holland and Zeeland (1425)

By September 1425, Jacqueline of Bavaria, having ended the war in the custody of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, managed a daring escape from Ghent. Disguised in men’s clothing, she fled to Schoonhoven and later Gouda, where she sought refuge with leaders of the Hook faction and once again asserted her claim to Holland and Zeeland.

This marked the resurgence of the Hook and Cod Wars, as Jacqueline, now the leader of the Hooks, attempted to reclaim her inheritance from Burgundian control.

I. Jacqueline’s Escape and Return to the Fight

• Imprisoned by Philip the Good, Jacqueline’s escape from Ghent in September 1425 was a bold move.
• Disguised as a man, she evaded her captors and made her way to Schoonhoven, a Hook stronghold.
• She later took refuge in Gouda, where she gathered her supporters and reaffirmed her right to rule.