Thomas of Lancaster, Duke of Clarence: Military Leadership and Political Divisions (1387–1421)

Thomas of Lancaster, Duke of Clarence (1387–1421), was the second son of King Henry IV of England and Mary de Bohun. He played a key role in English politics and military campaigns in France during the Hundred Years' War, particularly under his older brother, Henry V.

I. Early Life and Political Conflicts

• Thomas was born before November 25, 1387, as evidenced by a payment recorded in his father’s accounts to his nurse on that date.
• In November or December 1411, he married Lady Margaret Holland, widow of John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset, and daughter of Thomas Holland, 2nd Earl of Kent.
  • Although they had no children, Thomas became stepfather to Margaret’s six children from her first marriage.
  • He had one illegitimate son, Sir John Clarence ("the Bastard of Clarence"), who would fight alongside him in France.
• Thomas became politically involved during his father’s illness (1411), when conflicts arose between his elder brother Henry, Prince of Wales (the future Henry V), and their father, King Henry IV.
  • Henry, as Prince of Wales, sought to declare war on France, but his father opposed it.
  • When Henry defied the king and persuaded the royal council to declare war, he was removed from the council, and Thomas took his place, aligning with his father’s peace policy.

II. Military Role Under Henry V

• When Henry V launched his French campaign (1415), Thomas joined him in securing English dominance in Normandy.
• Siege of Rouen (July 1418 – January 1419)
  • Thomas commanded the besieging forces during the English capture of Rouen, one of the most crucial victories of the Hundred Years’ War.
  • The fall of Rouen solidified English control over Normandy, bringing Henry closer to his goal of securing the French throne.
• Treaty of Troyes (1420)
  • Thomas played a role in the negotiations of the Treaty of Troyes, in which Henry V was declared heir to the French throne and married Catherine of Valois, daughter of King Charles VI of France.

III. The French Resistance and the Role of the Scots

• The French Dauphin Charles (the future Charles VII), disinherited by the Treaty of Troyes, refused to accept English rule and continued to lead resistance in southern France.
• The French cause was strengthened by a Scottish army, led by John Stewart, Earl of Buchan, which provided critical reinforcements to the Dauphin’s forces.
• Thomas of Clarence, now one of England’s top commanders in France, would soon face his greatest challenge in battle against these combined forces.

IV. Legacy and the Continuing Conflict

• Thomas was one of England’s most experienced military leaders, but his impulsiveness in battle would ultimately lead to his downfall in 1421 at the Battle of Baugé.
• His rivalry with the Scottish forces, particularly under John Stewart, Earl of Buchan, played a key role in the next phase of the war.
• His death would be a major setback for the English, marking the first major French victory since Agincourt and shifting momentum toward the Dauphin’s forces.

By 1421, Thomas of Lancaster had risen to great prominence as an English military leader, but his impending fate in battle would mark a turning point in the Hundred Years’ War.

The Battle of Baugé (March 21, 1421): The English Defeat and the Death of the Duke of Clarence

The Battle of Baugé, fought on March 21, 1421 (Easter Saturday), was a decisive Franco-Scottish victory during the Hundred Years’ War, marking England’s first major defeat since Agincourt (1415). The battle was largely determined by the rash leadership of Thomas, Duke of Clarence, brother of King Henry V of England, who led a reckless charge with insufficient forces and was killed in battle.

I. The English Chevauchée and the Approach to Battle

• Clarence, following King Henry V’s orders, led 4,000 men in a devastating chevauchée through Anjou and Maine, encountering little resistance.
• By March 21, 1421 (Good Friday), his forces camped near the town of Vieil-Baugé.
• Meanwhile, a Franco-Scottish force of around 5,000 men, commanded by:
  • John Stewart, Earl of Buchan (leading the Scots).
  • Gilbert Motier de La Fayette, the new Constable of France.
• The Franco-Scottish force moved into the area to block further English advances.

II. The Dispersed English Forces and Clarence’s Rash Decision

• The English army was scattered, as many of the archers had ridden off in search of plunder and forage.
• On Easter Saturday, Clarence’s scouts captured a Scottish man-at-arms, revealing the presence of the Franco-Scottish army.
• Clarence faced a dilemma:
  • A battle on Easter Sunday was unthinkable due to its religious significance.
  • A two-day delay was also unacceptable, as it would allow the Franco-Scots time to strengthen their position.
• Walter Bower’s chronicles suggest that a brief truce was agreed upon, but battle nevertheless commenced that same day.

III. The Reckless Charge and the Battle at the Bridge

• Ignoring the advice of his lieutenants, Huntingdon and Gilbert Umfraville, Clarence ordered the Earl of Salisbury to round up the archers and follow as soon as possible.
• With only 1,500 men-at-arms and virtually no archers, Clarence charged the Franco-Scottish lines, underestimating their strength.
• A hundred Scottish archers, led by Sir Robert Stewart of Ralston, along with the retinue of Hugh Kennedy, held the bridge long enough for the Earl of Buchan to rally the main force.
• When Clarence finally forced his way across, he was confronted by the bulk of the Franco-Scottish army, whose men-at-arms had dismounted and were protected by archers.

IV. The Death of the Duke of Clarence

• In the melee, John Carmichael of Douglasdale broke his lance unhorsing Clarence.
• Several versions exist of how Clarence met his death:
  • Bower’s account: Scottish knight John Swinton wounded Clarence in the face, but Alexander Buchanan struck the fatal blow with a mace, then raised Clarence’s coronet on his lance in triumph.
  • Another tradition states Alexander Macausland of Lennox killed Clarence.
  • French chronicler Georges Chastellain attributes Clarence’s death to a Frenchman.

V. Salisbury’s Counterattack and the English Retreat

• Later that evening, the Earl of Salisbury regrouped the remaining English forces, using his archers to cover the retreat.
• He managed to rescue the surviving English troops and retrieve Clarence’s body.
• Despite this, the battle ended in a decisive Scottish-French victory.

VI. Consequences of the Battle

• First major English defeat since Agincourt (1415), shattering the illusion of English invincibility.
• Boosted Franco-Scottish morale, securing Charles VII’s resistance against English occupation.
• Clarence’s death weakened English leadership in France, as he had been one of Henry V’s most experienced commanders.
• Strengthened the reputation of the Scottish forces, who were crucial in defending the French Dauphin’s cause.

The Battle of Baugé (March 21, 1421) was a turning point, demonstrating that the English war machine was not invincible and that the Franco-Scottish alliance could effectively challenge English advances.

The Scottish-French Alliance and the Prelude to the Battle of Cravant (1423)

By 1423, France was in desperate need of soldiers to resist English and Burgundian advances during the Hundred Years’ War. To reinforce the diminished French army, Scotland—France’s traditional ally—provided critical military aid, forming what became known as the ‘Army of Scotland’.

The first large contingent of Scottish troops, around 6,000 men under John Stewart, 2nd Earl of Buchan, had arrived in 1419, quickly proving their worth by contributing to the French victory at the Battle of Baugé (1421)—England’s first major defeat since Agincourt.

However, the mood of optimism collapsed in the early summer of 1423, as French and Scottish forces prepared for another major confrontation.

I. The French-Scottish Army Assembles to Invade Burgundy (1423)

• In 1423, the French Dauphin Charles assembled an army at Bourges, preparing to invade Burgundian-held territory.
• The army contained a large Scottish contingent, commanded by Sir John Stewart of Darnley, who was given overall command of the combined force.
• The army also included:
  • French troops, led by the Comte de Vendôme (second-in-command).
  • Spanish (Aragonese) and Lombard mercenaries, supplementing the force.
• The Dauphinist army was numerically superior, outnumbering the Anglo-Burgundian force by two or three to one.

II. The Siege of Cravant and the Anglo-Burgundian Response

• The French-Scottish army laid siege to Cravant, a Burgundian-held town, aiming to secure a foothold in Burgundian territory.
• The garrison of Cravant, under siege, requested help from the Dowager Duchess of Burgundy, who raised troops and sought English assistance.
• The English, allied with the Burgundians, quickly responded, and the two armies united at Auxerre on July 29, 1423.

III. The Anglo-Burgundian War Council and Battle Preparations

• On July 29, 1423, the Anglo-Burgundian commanders gathered at Auxerre Cathedral to plan their strategy.
• Their order of battle was carefully structured, emphasizing:
  • A dismounted battle formation, with horses sent to the rear.
  • Archers prepared anti-cavalry stakes to counter French and Scottish charges.
  • Strict discipline orders to prevent disorder during the engagement.
• That night, the army was ordered to pray for victory, and marching orders were set for the following morning at 10:00 AM.

IV. Forces on the Battlefield

1. The French-Scottish Army (Dauphinist Forces)

• Commander: Sir John Stewart of Darnley
• Second-in-command: Comte de Vendôme
• Composition:
  • A majority of the force was Scottish.
  • French troops formed a sizable portion.
  • Aragonese and Lombard mercenaries provided additional reinforcements.
• Estimated Strength: Two to three times larger than the Anglo-Burgundian army.

2. The Anglo-Burgundian Army

• Composition:
  • English troops, led by experienced commanders.
  • Burgundian forces, supporting their English allies.
• Strategy:
  • A tactically disciplined approach, emphasizing defensive positions and coordinated attacks.

V. Conclusion: The Battle is Set

With the Dauphinist forces numerically superior, yet the Anglo-Burgundians better organized, the stage was set for the Battle of Cravant, which would be one of the most decisive confrontations of 1423.

The outcome of the battle would determine whether the French-Scottish alliance could continue its resurgence against English occupation or whether Anglo-Burgundian forces would maintain dominance in northern France.

The Battle of Cravant (July 31, 1423): An Anglo-Burgundian Victory

The Battle of Cravant, fought on July 31, 1423, marked the first major success of the joint English and Burgundian forces during the Hundred Years' War. Commanded by Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury, with Lord Willoughby as second-in-command, the allied army of 4,000 men decisively defeated the larger Franco-Scottish force, capturing key commanders and forcing the Dauphin’s army to retreat to the Loire.

I. The Anglo-Burgundian Army and Their Advance on Cravant

• The Anglo-Burgundian forces consisted of:
  • 1,500 men-at-arms (500 English, 1,000 Burgundian).
  • 2,000 English archers.
  • Burgundian crossbowmen and pioneers.
  • 40 veuglaires (light artillery) manned by citizens of Auxerre.
• On July 30, the allied forces sighted the enemy about four miles from Cravant.
• Finding the Dauphinist position too strong, they crossed the Yonne River to approach Cravant from another route.

II. Standoff at the River and the Start of the Battle

• The Dauphinist forces, primarily Scottish troops under John Stewart of Darnley and French troops under the Comte de Vendôme, repositioned on the opposite bank.
• For three hours, the two armies stared each other down, neither willing to attempt an opposed river crossing.
• Eventually, Scottish archers began shooting into the allied ranks, triggering an exchange of archery fire and artillery bombardment.

III. The Anglo-Burgundian Attack and the Franco-Scottish Defeat

• Salisbury seized the initiative, ordering his forces to wade across the waist-high, 50-meter-wide river under a barrage of English longbow fire.
• Simultaneously, Lord Willoughby launched an attack over a narrow bridge, splitting the Dauphinist forces in two.
• The French forces began withdrawing, but the Scottish troops refused to retreat and fought to the death.
• The Scots suffered heavy losses, with approximately:
  • 3,000 killed along the bridgehead and riverbanks.
  • 2,000 taken prisoner, including Darnley (who lost an eye) and the Comte de Vendôme.

IV. Aftermath and Strategic Consequences

• The Dauphin’s forces retreated to the Loire, leaving Burgundy secure for the time being.
• On August 2, the allied armies separated:
  • The Burgundians marched to Dijon.
  • The English withdrew to Montaiguillon.
• Despite the success at Cravant, Anglo-Burgundian cooperation remained rare, as both factions typically operated separately in their respective spheres of influence.

V. The Significance of Cravant

• The battle proved the effectiveness of joint English and Burgundian forces in battle.
• It reaffirmed English dominance in France, maintaining their momentum after Agincourt (1415).
• The heavy Scottish casualties weakened the Franco-Scottish alliance, reducing the effectiveness of future Scottish reinforcements for the Dauphin.

The Battle of Cravant (1423) was a decisive victory for the Anglo-Burgundians, reinforcing English control in France and inflicting devastating losses on the Franco-Scottish forces. However, the uneasy alliance between England and Burgundy remained fragile, and rarely would they fight together in such a coordinated manner again.

Scottish Reinforcements Arrive in France: Buchan and Douglas Strengthen the Dauphin’s Cause (1424)

At the beginning of 1424, John Stewart, Earl of Buchan, returned to France with 6,500 additional Scottish troops to bolster the French Dauphin Charles VII’s forces against the Anglo-Burgundian alliance. Accompanying him was Archibald Douglas, 4th Earl of Douglas, one of Scotland’s most powerful noblemen, bringing military expertise and political weight to the Scottish intervention in France.

I. Composition of the Scottish Reinforcements

• The army totaled 6,500 men, consisting of:
  • 2,500 men-at-arms (heavily armored cavalry and foot soldiers).
  • 4,000 longbowmen, renowned for their skill in warfare.
• This was a significant reinforcement, as the Scottish-French alliance had already been pivotal at the Battle of Baugé (1421), where the Scots inflicted England’s first major defeat since Agincourt.

II. Arrival at Bourges and the Boost to the Dauphin’s Cause (April 24, 1424)

• On April 24, 1424, the Scottish army entered Bourges, where they were received at the Dauphin’s court.
• Their arrival raised the spirits of Charles VII, who had been struggling to maintain resistance against the English forces led by John of Lancaster, Duke of Bedford.
• The reinforcements gave Charles VII renewed confidence, reinforcing the Franco-Scottish military cooperation.

III. The Importance of Buchan and Douglas in the War

• John Stewart, Earl of Buchan, had already proven himself a capable leader at Baugé, and his return signaled Scotland’s ongoing commitment to the French cause.
• Archibald Douglas, 4th Earl of Douglas, was among the most influential nobles in Scotland, lending prestige and leadership to the campaign.
• Their presence strengthened Franco-Scottish military operations, paving the way for further engagements against the English.

IV. Consequences and the Next Phase of the War

• The Scottish troops would soon engage the English again, leading to the Battle of Verneuil (August 17, 1424)—a brutal confrontation that would test the resilience of the Franco-Scottish alliance.
• The Dauphin’s forces were now reinforced, making him more capable of resisting the English advance.

The arrival of Buchan and Douglas in France in 1424 reinforced Scotland’s commitment to the French cause, giving Charles VII the military support needed to continue his struggle against the English occupation of France.

The Franco-Scottish Army Prepares for Battle: The Campaign Leading to Verneuil (August 1424)

By August 1424, the newly reinforced Franco-Scottish army was ready to take action against the English forces of John of Lancaster, Duke of Bedford. Their initial objective was to relieve the castle of Ivry, near Le Mans, which was under siege by the English. However, before they could arrive, Ivry surrendered, forcing the allied commanders to reconsider their strategy.

I. The Franco-Scottish Army Marches to Relieve Ivry

• The army was led by:
  • Archibald Douglas, Earl of Douglas (now Duke of Touraine).
  • John Stewart, Earl of Buchan.
• They left Tours on August 4, 1424, aiming to join forces with French commanders:
  • John, Duke of Alençon.
  • The Viscounts of Narbonne and Aumale.

However, before they could reach Ivry, the castle surrendered to the English, creating uncertainty over their next move.

II. The War Council: A Divided Strategy

• The allied commanders held a council of war, debating their next course of action:
  • The Scots and younger French officers were eager to engage the English in battle, hoping for another decisive victory like Baugé (1421).
  • The senior French nobility, led by Narbonne, remained cautious, recalling the disastrous French defeat at Agincourt (1415) and fearing another catastrophe.
• As a compromise, the allied leaders decided to target English-held fortresses along the Norman border, instead of directly confronting Bedford’s main army.

III. The Decision to Attack Verneuil

• The first target chosen was Verneuil, a key stronghold in western Normandy.
• The attack on Verneuil was intended to:
  • Disrupt English control over Normandy.
  • Draw Bedford’s army into a battle on favorable terms for the Franco-Scottish forces.
• This decision would lead directly to the Battle of Verneuil (August 17, 1424), a brutal confrontation that would prove to be one of the most decisive battles of the Hundred Years’ War.

IV. Consequences and the Path to Verneuil

• The decision to march on Verneuil set the stage for one of the bloodiest battles in the conflict, where the fate of the Scottish forces in France would be decided.
• The Franco-Scottish army, emboldened by previous victories, was determined to challenge English supremacy in northern France.

The march to relieve Ivry in August 1424 ended in failure, but the shift to attacking Verneuil led directly to one of the most significant battles of the war, where both Scotland and France would face their greatest test against the English under Bedford.

The Battle of Verneuil (August 17, 1424): A Decisive English Victory

The Battle of Verneuil, fought on August 17, 1424, was one of the bloodiest confrontations of the Hundred Years’ War, often referred to as “a second Agincourt” by the English. The battle saw the destruction of the Franco-Scottish army, leaving thousands dead, including Archibald Douglas, Earl of Douglas, and John Stewart, Earl of Buchan.

Despite their initial success in capturing Verneuil by deception, the Scottish and French forces, commanded by Douglas, Buchan, and the Viscount of Narbonne, suffered a catastrophic defeat at the hands of the English army led by John, Duke of Bedford.

I. The Capture of Verneuil and Bedford’s Response

• Before the battle, Scottish troops used deception to capture Verneuil:
  • A group of Scots, leading fellow Scots as "prisoners," claimed to be English soldiers returning from a victory.
  • The gates were opened, and Verneuil fell into French hands.
• On August 15, 1424, Bedford received news of Verneuil’s capture and immediately marched to retake the town.

II. The Battlefield and Initial Deployment

• The Franco-Scottish army, under Sir John Stewart of Darnley, the Duke of Alençon, and the Earl of Douglas, took position a mile north of Verneuil.

• The army was composed of:

  • French troops under Narbonne on the left, supported by Milanese cavalry.
  • Scottish troops under Douglas and Buchan on the right, supported by Lombard cavalry.
  • Viscount Aumale held overall command.

• The English army, led by John, Duke of Bedford, was organized in two divisions:

  • Bedford commanded the right flank, facing the French forces.
  • Sir Thomas Montacute, Earl of Salisbury, led the left flank against the Scots.
  • A reserve of 2,000 English archers was placed at the rear to guard the baggage train.

III. The Battle Begins: A Disjointed Franco-Scottish Attack

• As Bedford brought his troops into arrow range, he halted to allow his longbowmen to drive their stakes into the ground—a defensive measure against cavalry.
• However, due to the baked summer ground, the stakes could not be driven in easily.
• Seeing an opportunity, the French cavalry charged prematurely, out of sync with the Scottish forces.

1. The French Charge and Collapse

• The French cavalry on the left broke through the English archers, possibly due to their improved tempered steel armor.
• Instead of pressing the attack, they continued toward the baggage train, hoping to seize loot.
• Meanwhile, Bedford’s men-at-arms counterattacked the French infantry, shattering Narbonne’s division.
• Narbonne and many French commanders were killed or drowned in the moat of Verneuil.

2. The Scots Stand Alone

• With the French defeated, Bedford halted the pursuit and turned back to the battlefield, where Salisbury was still fighting the Scots.
• The Lombard cavalry, hoping for loot, also charged toward the baggage train, but were driven off by Bedford’s reserve archers.
• Seeing the Lombards fleeing, the English reserve force entered the main battle, attacking the Scottish right wing.

IV. The Destruction of the Scots and the English Victory

• Now almost completely surrounded, the Scots made a last stand, fighting to the last man.

• The English shouted, "A Clarence! A Clarence!", invoking the death of Thomas, Duke of Clarence at the Battle of Baugé (1421), seeking revenge.

• Over 4,000 Scots were killed, including:

  • Archibald Douglas, Earl of Douglas.
  • John Stewart, Earl of Buchan.
  • Sir Alexander Buchanan, the man who had killed Clarence at Baugé.

• English losses were relatively light, with only 1,600 men killed, including two men-at-arms and “a very few archers,” according to Bedford.

V. Aftermath and Consequences

• Verneuil was one of the most devastating defeats for the Franco-Scottish alliance, effectively eliminating Scottish military support for Charles VII.
• The English reestablished dominance in northern France, strengthening their hold over Normandy.
• Bedford’s victory ensured that England remained in control of France’s most economically and strategically vital regions.

The Battle of Verneuil (1424) was one of the bloodiest battles of the Hundred Years' War, delivering a crippling blow to the French and their Scottish allies, and ensuring that English control over northern France remained unchallenged for years.

Murdoch Stewart, now aged fifty-eight, had finally inherited the Dukedom of Albany on the death of his father, Robert, in 1420.

He also inherited the Earldom of Fife and the Earldom of Menteith, and at last became Governor of Scotland in his own right.

He has held this position from 1420 to 1424, while King James I is still held captive in England.

Few serious attempts appear to have been made by Duke Albany to return James to Scotland, but eventually political pressure had compelled Murdoch to agree to a general council.

It had been agreed in August 1423 that an embassy should be sent to England to negotiate James's release.

A ransom treaty of sixty thousand marks (an enormous sum) is agreed at Durham on March 28, 1424, to which James attaches his own seal—he and his queen accompanied by an escort of English and Scottish nobles proceeded to Melrose Abbey arriving on April 5, where he meets Albany to receive the governor's seal of office.

Upon the return of James I to Scotland, Albany loses his position as Regent.

James now begins to consolidate his position.

His coronation takes place on May 21, 1424, at Scone.

At his coronation parliament the king—probably with the intent of securing a cohesive political community loyal to the crown—knights eighteen prominent nobles, including Albany's son Alexander Stewart.

At this stage, it is probable that the king feels unable to move against the Albany Stewarts while Murdoch's brother, John Stewart, Earl of Buchan, and Archibald Douglas, 4th Earl of Douglas, are fighting the English in France alongside their Dauphinist French allies.

Buchan is a soldier with an international reputation, and commands the large Scottish army of around six thousand men, a formidable force.

In addition he is Constable of France, making him the effective commander of the entire French army.

However, both he and Douglas are killed at the Battle of Verneuil in August 1424 and the Scottish army is routed—the loss of these Albany allies with their fighting force leaves Murdoch politically exposed.

James moves swiftly against his Albany Stewart relatives soon afterwards.