King Fuad
sultan and later king of Egypt and Sudan, sovereign of Nubia, Kordofan, and Darfur
1868 CE to 1936 CE
Fuad I (March 26, 1868 – April 28, 1936) is the sultan and later king of Egypt and Sudan, sovereign of Nubia, Kordofan, and Darfur.
The ninth ruler of Egypt and Sudan from the Muhammad Ali dynasty, he becomes sultan in 1917, succeeding his elder brother Hussein Kamel.
He substitutes the title of king for sultan when the United Kingdom recognizes Egyptian independence in 1922.
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Four matters are "absolutely reserved to the discretion" of the British government until agreements concerning them can be negotiated: the security of communications of the British Empire in Egypt; the
defense of Egypt against all foreign aggressors or interference, direct or indirect; the protection of foreign interests in Egypt and the protection of minorities; and Sudan.
Sultan Ahmad Fuad becomes King Fuad I, and his son, Faruok, is named as his heir.
The Near East, 1924 to 1935 CE: Nationalism, Economic Change, and Colonial Tensions
Egyptian Politics and Nationalist Struggles
Political dynamics in Egypt during this era center around three major forces: the British colonial presence, the Egyptian monarchy, and the nationalist Wafd Party. The British maintain overwhelming influence through military occupation and strategic administrative positions, while the monarchy retains substantial constitutional power, particularly under the increasingly assertive rule of King Fuad I. The Wafd Party, deeply popular among Egyptians, consistently challenges both the British and the monarchy, advocating parliamentary democracy and full independence.
Ismail Sidky emerges prominently as a major opponent of the Wafd. In 1930, Sidky abolishes Egypt’s liberal constitution and replaces it with one significantly enhancing royal authority, subsequently founding his own political organization, Al Hizb ash Shaab (People's Party), which merges with the Ittihad Party in 1938. Internal divisions within the Wafd itself lead dissidents to establish the Saadist Party in 1938, named in honor of nationalist leader Saad Zaghlul.
Economic Developments in Sudan
Under Anglo-Egyptian colonial rule, economic activity in Sudan intensifies notably through the Gezira Scheme, launched by the Sudanese government and the private Sudan Plantations Syndicate. This initiative, significantly expanded by the completion of an irrigation dam near Sennar in 1925, transforms Al Jazirah into a vital cotton-producing region supplying Britain's textile industry. The scheme brings widespread economic change and dense population growth to this formerly sparsely populated region, reinforcing British economic interests in the area.
British Administration and Nationalist Movements in Sudan
British colonial governance in Sudan relies heavily on a system of indirect rule, empowering local tribal sheikhs and chiefs to administer under British supervision. This policy proves controversial: supported by the Ansar, followers of the Mahdi, who benefit from local authority positions, yet strongly opposed by nationalists and members of the Khatmiyyah order. Sudanese nationalism grows significantly post-World War I, driven largely by educated elites advocating centralized governance and resisting British efforts at decentralization.
A key figure in this early nationalist movement is Ali Abd al Latif, a Muslim Dinka former army officer who leads the White Flag League, advocating independence and central governance. Following the assassination of Sir Lee Stack, Governor-General of Sudan, in 1924, Abd al Latif's subsequent arrest triggers significant nationalist unrest and a mutiny in the Sudanese army, although these are quickly suppressed by British forces. Britain's response to the crisis includes the removal of Egyptian troops from Sudan and the establishment of the Sudan Defence Force (SDF) in 1925.
Rising Arab-Jewish Tensions and Zionist Developments
The Revisionist Zionist movement, led by Vladimir Jabotinsky, advocates explicitly for the establishment of a Jewish state beyond Palestine’s original territorial claims, particularly extending east of the Jordan River. Revisionist Zionists form influential organizations such as the Betar youth movement and ETZEL (National Military Organization), later instrumental in founding the Herut Party and its successor, the modern Likud Party.
During this period, Arab-Jewish tensions escalate dramatically due to increased Jewish immigration prompted by rising anti-Semitism and Nazi persecution in Europe. Large-scale violence erupts, notably during significant Arab-Jewish clashes in 1929 and again in 1935, leading to severe unrest and British efforts to tighten immigration controls. These clashes mark a deepening conflict in Palestine, foreshadowing decades of future struggles.
Legacy of the Era: Roots of Continuing Struggle
From 1924 to 1935, the Near East undergoes significant shifts driven by nationalist movements, colonial policies, and economic transformations. Britain's indirect rule and economic projects in Sudan solidify its colonial control while stoking nationalist opposition. In Egypt, the period sets the stage for prolonged political tensions among nationalist forces, the monarchy, and British colonial power. Palestine witnesses intensifying Arab-Jewish conflict fueled by growing Zionist ambitions and deepening regional divides, presaging enduring conflicts of identity, land, and independence that would shape the region for decades to come.
The British have overwhelming power, and if their interests are at stake, their power prevails over the other two.
The king is in a stronger position than the Wafd because his power is difficult to curb while the Wafd can easily be removed from power.
The Wafd embodies parliamentary democracy in Egypt; thus, by its very existence, it constitutes a threat to both the king and the British.
To the king, any democratic system is a threat to his autocratic rule.
To the British, a democratic system means that in any free election the Wafd will be voted into power.
The British believe that the Wafd in power is a threat to their own power in the country.
Thus, the British attempt to destroy the power of the Wafd and to use the king as a counter to the Wafd.
The basis of British power is its army of occupation as well as British officials in the administration, police, and army.
The king's power rests on the rights he can exercise in accordance with the 1923 constitution and partly on the permanence of his position.
The king's rights include selecting and appointing the prime minister, dismissing the cabinet, and dissolving Parliament.
The Wafd's power is based on its popular support and its command of a vast majority in Parliament.
Two seats each go to the Wafd's opponents, the National Party and the Liberal Constitutionalist Party, a party founded in 1922 and considered excessively cooperative with the British.
The Wafd feels it has a mandate to conclude a treaty with Britain that will assure Egypt complete independence.
Saad Zaghlu, as prime minister, carefully selects a cross-section of Egyptian society for his cabinet, which he calls the "People's Ministry."
The assassination is one of a series of killings of British officials that had begun in 1920.
High Commissioner Sir Edmind Allenby, who had considered Stack an old and trusted friend, is determined to avenge the crime and in the process humiliate the Wafd and destroy its credibility in Egypt.
The Wafdist government will not last long, however.
Zaghlul wants to resign rather than accept the ultimatum, but Allenby presents it to him before Zaghlul can offer his resignation to the king. Zaghlul and his cabinet decide to accept the first four terms but to reject the last two.
On November 24, after ordering the Ministry of Finance to pay the indemnity, Zaghlul resigns.
He will die three years later.