The Madness of Charles VI and the Struggle for Power (1392–1420)

Between 1388 and 1392, King Charles VI of France implemented governmental reforms and financial economies, seeking to stabilize royal administration after the tumultuous reign of his father, Charles V. However, after 1392, Charles VI began to suffer from recurrent bouts of insanity, rendering him incapable of ruling effectively. His mental decline created a power vacuum, leading to a prolonged struggle for control of the French government between the House of Burgundy and the House of Orléans.

The Rivalry Between Burgundy and Orléans

With the king unable to govern, two factions emerged to fill the void:

• The Burgundians, led by Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy (the king’s uncle), and later his son John the Fearless.
• The Armagnacs, led by Louis, Duke of Orléans (the king’s younger brother), and after his assassination in 1407, by his son Charles of Orléans and his allies.

This dynastic struggle eventually erupted into a civil war (1407–1435) that paralyzed France, weakening its financial and military systems and leaving the kingdom vulnerable to English intervention in the later stages of the Hundred Years’ War.

The Disintegration of France’s Military and Financial System

As factional conflicts intensified, the once-strong French military and taxation system—carefully built under Charles V—began to fall apart:

• Royal finances collapsed, as tax revenues were siphoned off by competing factions.
• Mercenary bands, known as the Écorcheurs ("Skinners"), ravaged the countryside as central authority eroded.
• The English renewed their invasion, with Henry V delivering a crushing defeat to the French at Agincourt (1415).
• The Burgundian-Orléanist feud ultimately resulted in John the Fearless' assassination in 1419, leading Burgundy to ally with England and support the Treaty of Troyes (1420), which disinherited the dauphin (future Charles VII) in favor of Henry V of England.

Long-Term Consequences

The mental decline of Charles VI and the subsequent struggle for power not only crippled France’s ability to defend itself, but also paved the way for English dominance in northern France. The kingdom would remain in turmoil until Joan of Arc’s intervention in 1429, which helped turn the tide in favor of the Valois dynasty.

The Creation of the Duchy of Orléans and the Founding of the House of Valois-Orléans (1392)

In 1392, King Charles VI of France granted the Duchy of Orléans to his younger brother, Louis of Valois, thereby establishing the House of Valois-Orléans. This move not only solidified the Valois dynasty’s control over France but also set the stage for future power struggles that would shape French politics in the 15th century.

Background: The Valois Expansion of Power

• The Valois dynasty, ruling since 1328, sought to consolidate power by granting appanages (landed titles) to younger royal sons.
• Louis, the second son of Charles V, was already Count of Valois, Duke of Touraine, and Count of Angoulême, Périgord, and Blois.
• In 1392, Charles VI elevated him to Duke of Orléans, making him one of the most powerful nobles in France.

The Establishment of the House of Valois-Orléans

• The House of Valois-Orléans became a major branch of the French royal family, playing a crucial role in:
  • The internal power struggles of the late 14th and 15th centuries.
  • The French civil wars between the Armagnacs (Orléans faction) and the Burgundians.
  • The eventual accession of the Orléans dynasty to the French throne as the House of Valois-Angoulême in 1515 with Francis I.

Impact and Legacy

• Louis of Orléans’ growing influence led to tensions with Philip the Bold of Burgundy, escalating into the Burgundian-Orléans conflict that culminated in Louis’ assassination in 1407.
• The rivalry between the House of Orléans and the House of Burgundy would contribute to the Armagnac-Burgundian Civil War (1407–1435), weakening France during the Hundred Years’ War.
• The Duchy of Orléans remained a key Valois stronghold, and its lineage eventually led to the Valois-Angoulême kings, beginning with Francis I in the 16th century.

The granting of the Duchy of Orléans in 1392 marked the rise of the House of Valois-Orléans, setting the stage for decades of political intrigue, civil war, and dynastic influence that shaped France’s history well into the Renaissance period.

The Armagnac-Burgundian Civil War: France's Internal Struggle Amidst the Hundred Years' War (1407–1435)

As France was already devastated by the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) and the conflicts surrounding the Western Schism (1378–1417), a civil war erupted between two rival factions of the French royal family, further weakening the kingdom and inviting English intervention. This conflict, known as the Armagnac-Burgundian Civil War (1407–1435), pitted the House of Orléans (the Armagnacs) against the House of Burgundy, creating internal chaos at a critical moment in France’s history.

I. Origins of the Conflict: The Murder of Louis of Orléans (1407)

• King Charles VI of France suffered from recurring bouts of insanity, rendering him unable to govern effectively.
• This left power in the hands of rival noble factions:
  • The Burgundians, led by John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, who sought to dominate the French court.
  • The Orléanists (later the Armagnacs), led by Louis I, Duke of Orléans, the king’s ambitious younger brother.
• On November 23, 1407, John the Fearless orchestrated the assassination of Louis of Orléans in Paris, triggering open war between the two factions.

II. The Armagnacs vs. The Burgundians

• The Armagnacs, named after Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac, who led the Orléanist faction, were supported by:
  • The Dauphin (the future Charles VII).
  • Southern and central France.
  • Pro-Valois nobles who opposed Burgundian influence.
• The Burgundians, led by John the Fearless, drew support from:
  • Northern France, including Paris.
  • The powerful Burgundian Netherlands.
  • Merchants and factions favoring English alliances.

III. English Involvement and the Treaty of Troyes (1420)

• The conflict further destabilized France, allowing England to expand its conquests.
• In 1419, John the Fearless was assassinated by the Dauphin’s supporters, escalating the war.
• In 1420, the Treaty of Troyes, signed between the Burgundians and the English, disinherited the Dauphin and recognized England’s Henry V as heir to the French throne.

IV. Resolution: The Treaty of Arras (1435)

• The civil war dragged on for years, preventing France from effectively resisting English occupation.
• In 1435, the Burgundians, under Philip the Good, switched sides, signing the Treaty of Arras with Charles VII.
• This allowed France to unite against England, leading to the eventual expulsion of the English from France by 1453.

V. Impact and Legacy

• The Armagnac-Burgundian Civil War (1407–1435) was one of the most destructive internal conflicts in French history, delaying France’s recovery from English invasions.
• It permanently shaped French politics, reinforcing the importance of Burgundian power in European affairs.
• The Burgundian betrayal of the English in 1435 ultimately helped France regain the upper hand in the Hundred Years' War.

This civil war within a war deepened France’s crisis, allowing English expansion, but its resolution in 1435 marked the beginning of France’s resurgence and ultimate victory in the Hundred Years' War.

The Death of John of Gaunt and the Exile of Henry Bolingbroke (1399)

On February 3, 1399, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, died of natural causes at Leicester Castle, with his third wife, Katherine Swynford, by his side. By this time, his reputation—once tarnished by political controversies—had been largely restored due to his dedication to the stability of the kingdom in his final years.

However, his death triggered a succession crisis, as King Richard II took drastic measures to prevent Gaunt’s son, Henry Bolingbroke, from inheriting his lands and titles, ultimately leading to Richard’s downfall.

I. Richard II’s Decision to Disinherit Henry Bolingbroke

• As John of Gaunt’s eldest surviving son, Henry Bolingbroke was expected to inherit the Duchy of Lancaster automatically through legal provisions known as "entail".
• Instead of honoring these rights, Richard II extended Bolingbroke’s exile to life and revoked the legal documents that ensured Henry’s inheritance.
• This meant that Henry would have to formally request his father’s lands from the king, a move designed to weaken Bolingbroke’s position and consolidate royal control over the vast Lancastrian estates.
• Richard felt secure in this decision, as Henry was in exile in Paris, and the French showed little interest in interfering due to their peace policy with England.

II. Richard II’s Absence and the Changing Political Landscape in France

• In May 1399, Richard departed for Ireland on another military campaign, leaving the kingdom in a politically vulnerable state.
• In June 1399, Louis, Duke of Orléans, gained influence over the French court and the insane King Charles VI, effectively controlling French foreign policy.
• Unlike his predecessor, Louis opposed rapprochement with England, as it did not align with his political ambitions in France.

III. Henry Bolingbroke’s Return to England

• Recognizing an opportunity to destabilize Richard II, Louis of Orléans allowed Henry Bolingbroke to leave France for England.
• After initial hesitation, Henry met with Thomas Arundel, the exiled former Archbishop of Canterbury, who had been banished for his involvement with the Lords Appellant.
• Arundel’s support was crucial, as he provided clerical legitimacy and noble backing for Henry’s return.

IV. Consequences and the Road to Richard’s Deposition

• Henry’s return to England in June–July 1399 quickly gained him widespread support, especially from nobles discontented with Richard’s rule.
• The disinheritance of Bolingbroke alienated many members of the nobility, who saw Richard’s actions as unlawful and autocratic.
• With Richard absent in Ireland, Henry’s invasion was almost unopposed, leading to his eventual seizure of the throne as Henry IV in September 1399.

V. Legacy of the Crisis

• The confiscation of the Lancaster estates and Bolingbroke’s exile were major miscalculations on Richard II’s part, costing him the throne.
• Louis of Orléans’ decision to allow Henry’s return had far-reaching consequences, indirectly leading to the establishment of the Lancastrian dynasty in England.
• Richard’s downfall marked the end of direct Plantagenet rule, ushering in the Wars of the Roses (1455–1487)in the following decades.

The death of John of Gaunt in 1399 set off a chain reaction that ultimately led to the overthrow of Richard II, highlighting the fragility of royal authority and the consequences of alienating powerful noble families.

Jean de Béthencourt: Norman Noble, Crusader, and Conqueror of the Canary Islands

Jean de Béthencourt (1362–1425), Baron of Saint-Martin-le-Gaillard, was a Norman noble, soldier, and explorer whose career spanned the Hundred Years’ War, crusades against North African corsairs, and the conquest of the Canary Islands. His life reflected the turbulence of late medieval France, as shifting alliances, piracy, and overseas expansion shaped his rise to prominence.

I. Early Life and Feudal Struggles in Normandy (1362–1387)

• Born in Grainville-la-Teinturière, Normandy, Jean was the son of Jean III de Béthencourt and Marie de Bracquemont.
• His father, a supporter of King Charles V, fought under Bertrand du Guesclin against Charles II of Navarreand was killed in May 1364 at the Battle of Cocherel.
• Following his father’s death, the Château de Grainville was demolished in 1365, part of royal efforts to dismantle fortresses that could be used by rebellious lords.
• In 1377, at age fifteen, Béthencourt entered the service of Louis I, Duke of Anjou, beginning a long military and courtly career.

II. Service to the House of Valois and Expeditions in North Africa (1387–1391)

• Between 1387 and 1391, he held the honorary position of chancellor to Louis de Valois, Duke of Touraine(later Duke of Orléans).
• In 1387, King Charles VI of France authorized the rebuilding of the Château de Grainville, restoring Béthencourt’s territorial power.
• As lord of Grainville, he held seven parishes and rights over all trade crossing his land, first as a vassal of Olivier du Guesclin, son of Bertrand du Guesclin.
• Later, during Henry V’s conquest of Normandy (1417–1419), he was forced to acknowledge English overlordship, though he likely engaged in piracy against both French and English vessels during periods of instability.

III. The Mahdia Crusade (1390) and First Encounters with the Canaries

• In 1390, Béthencourt joined the Mahdia Crusade, an expedition organized by Genoese merchants and led by Louis II, Duke of Bourbon, against the Barbary corsairs of Tunis.
• The campaign, presented as a "crusade," offered participants prestige, a moratorium on debts, immunity from lawsuits, and papal indulgences.
• However, the French knights were unprepared for the terrain, lacked siege equipment, and suffered from internal quarrels, leading to a negotiated withdrawal.
• During this campaign, Béthencourt likely first heard of the Canary Islands, where merchants spoke of orchil lichen, a rare dye highly valuable for the textile industry.

IV. The Conquest of the Canary Islands (1402–1405)

• Seeking economic opportunities in the dye trade, Béthencourt planned an expedition to the Canary Islands, which at the time were frequented by merchants and Spanish pirates.
• To fund his venture, he sold property in Paris for 200 gold francs and secured a 7,000-pound loan from his uncle, Robert de Bracquemont, the French ambassador to Castile, by mortgaging his estates.
• According to Louis Moréri, King Henry III of Castile had entrusted the conquest of the islands to Bracquemont, who then delegated the mission to Béthencourt.
• Accompanied by Gadifer de La Salle, whom he had met in service under the Duke of Orléans, Béthencourt set sail for the Canaries in December 1401.

V. Legacy and Impact

• Béthencourt’s conquest of the Canaries marked the beginning of European expansion into the Atlantic, preceding Portugal’s and Spain’s later colonial endeavors.
• His expedition combined feudal ambition, economic opportunity, and religious justification, foreshadowing later European imperial ventures.
• His rule over the islands was later challenged and disputed, leading to his eventual withdrawal from direct governance in favor of Castilian control.

Jean de Béthencourt’s career reflects the shifting dynamics of late medieval Europe, where knightly service, piracy, crusading, and overseas conquest blended in the pursuit of power, wealth, and prestige.

Philip the Bold’s Regency and the Origins of the Armagnac-Burgundian Feud (1392–1404)

In 1392, Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, took advantage of King Charles VI’s deteriorating mental health to appoint himself regent of France, dismissing the king’s previous advisors. His seizure of power, however, had disastrous consequences for the unity of the House of Valois and for France itself, setting the stage for the long-running Burgundian-Orléanist conflict.

I. Philip the Bold vs. Louis of Orléans: A Rivalry for Power and Wealth

• Philip’s nephew, Louis, Duke of Orléans (the king’s younger brother), deeply resented being sidelined as regent, believing he should have been the natural leader of France in his brother’s absence.
• Their feud grew increasingly personal and political, with both competing for control of royal finances and influence at court:
  • Louis of Orléans used royal funds to finance his extravagant lifestyle.
  • Philip of Burgundy directed wealth toward his own ambitions in Burgundy and the Low Countries, strengthening his dynastic holdings.
• Despite their rivalry, Philip’s reputation in Paris remained strong, as he appeared a capable and pragmatic ruler in contrast to the reckless and spendthrift Orléans.

II. The Struggle for the Regency (1402–1404)

• In 1402, during a rare moment of lucidity, Charles VI officially named Louis of Orléans as regent.
• However, Louis’ poor governance, financial mismanagement, and growing unpopularity in Paris allowed Philip of Burgundy to regain control of France in 1404.
• Shortly after reclaiming the regency, Philip the Bold died on April 27, 1404, in Halle, County of Hainaut (modern Belgium).

III. The Legacy: The Burgundian-Orléanist Conflict Begins

• Philip’s death marked the beginning of a prolonged civil war between the Burgundians and the Orléanists, later known as the Armagnac-Burgundian War (1407–1435).
• His eldest son, John the Fearless, inherited his vast Burgundian territories and political position in France, continuing Philip’s rivalry with Louis of Orléans.
• This feud culminated in the assassination of Louis of Orléans in 1407, a key turning point in French history, leading to decades of internal conflict and English intervention in the Hundred Years’ War.

IV. Impact and Consequences

• Philip’s regency weakened the unity of the Valois dynasty, setting the stage for one of France’s most destructive internal conflicts.
• His political ambitions in Burgundy and the Low Countries laid the foundation for Burgundian expansion, making the duchy a major European power.
• The rivalry between Burgundy and Orléans deepened France’s vulnerability, ultimately facilitating English conquests during the Hundred Years’ War.

Philip the Bold’s rise to power as regent (1392) and subsequent death in 1404 marked the beginning of a bitter civil war within France, as the House of Burgundy and the House of Orléans vied for control of the kingdom, shaping the course of 15th-century French history.

The Rise of John the Fearless and the Intensifying Burgundian-Orléanist Rivalry (1404–1407)

Upon his investment as Duke of Burgundy in 1404, John the Fearless immediately entered open conflict with Louis, Duke of Orléans, the younger brother of the increasingly mad King Charles VI. Both men sought to control France in the absence of a stable monarchy, leading to a deepening power struggle that would soon escalate into full-scale civil war.

I. John the Fearless’ Political Strategy and Alliances

• John, Duke of Burgundy, focused on strengthening his power through marriage diplomacy, political alliances, and economic support.
• He arranged a marriage between his daughter Marguerite and Louis, Dauphin of France, while securing Michelle of Valois as the wife of his heir, Philip the Good.
• He actively courted support from the middle class, merchants, tradesmen, and the University of Paris, knowing that the economic and intellectual elite could serve as a counterbalance to noble opposition.

II. Louis of Orléans and His Courtly Maneuvering

• Louis of Orléans, in contrast, worked to win favor within the royal court, particularly through his close relationship with Queen Isabeau of Bavaria.
• Rumors circulated that Louis had become Isabeau’s lover, further deepening the rift between him and John.
• While John sought urban support, Louis relied on royal patronage and courtly influence to consolidate power.

III. The Role of Charles VI’s Other Uncles

• The other uncles of Charles VI had played less active roles in the regency:
  • Louis II, Duke of Anjou, was preoccupied with managing the Kingdom of Naples and had little direct influence in Paris.
  • John, Duke of Berry, largely acted as a mediator between the factions, rather than taking a firm stance.

IV. The Road to Civil War

• The rivalry between John of Burgundy and Louis of Orléans intensified bit by bit, as both factions sought dominance over the incapacitated French monarchy.
• Their growing struggle soon transformed into open hostilities, culminating in a true civil war between the Armagnacs (Orléanists) and the Burgundians.

The power vacuum left by Charles VI’s insanity created a battleground for political factions, and John the Fearless’ rivalry with Louis of Orléans would soon lead to one of the most violent internal conflicts in French history, shaping the fate of the Valois dynasty.

Christine de Pizan and Her Landmark Feminist Works (1405)

By 1405, Christine de Pizan, the first professional female writer in Europe, had completed her two most influential works:

1. The Book of the City of Ladies (Le Livre de la Cité des Dames)
2. The Treasure of the City of Ladies, or The Book of the Three Virtues (Le Livre des Trois Vertus)

These texts challenged the misogynistic literary tradition of the Middle Ages, celebrated women’s contributions to history and society, and provided practical guidance for women of all social classes.

I. The Book of the City of Ladies: A Defense of Women

• Written in response to the prevailing anti-female sentiment in medieval literature, especially Jean de Meun’s Romance of the Rose.
• In an allegorical framework, Christine constructs an imaginary city populated by great women from history, mythology, and religion.
• The book argues that women are intelligent, virtuous, and capable contributors to society, refuting the belief that they are naturally inferior to men.
• It features conversations with three allegorical figures—Reason, Rectitude, and Justice—who help Christine build her “City of Ladies” as a safe haven for women’s achievements.

II. The Treasure of the City of Ladies: A Guide to Women’s Conduct

• Intended as a practical companion to The Book of the City of Ladies.
• Provides guidance to women of all estates—from queens and noblewomen to merchants’ wives and peasants—on how to navigate society while cultivating useful virtues.
• Encourages women to:
  • Pursue education and moral integrity.
  • Support each other rather than succumb to societal divisions.
  • Exercise diplomacy and prudence in dealing with men.
• The book ultimately teaches women how to counteract the misogyny that permeates medieval societythrough wisdom, self-respect, and strategic action.

III. Legacy and Influence

• Christine de Pizan is regarded as one of the first European feminists, paving the way for later discussions on women’s rights and intellectual equality.
• Her works had a lasting impact on Renaissance literature and beyond, influencing writers such as Marguerite de Navarre and later early modern feminists.
• By establishing herself as a successful female intellectual in a male-dominated literary world, Christine set a precedent for women’s participation in scholarly discourse.

Christine de Pizan’s completion of The Book of the City of Ladies and The Treasure of the City of Ladies in 1405was a landmark moment in medieval feminist thought, providing both a defense of women’s dignity and a guide for female empowerment in a restrictive society.

The Duke of Orléans' Ambitions in Italy and the Anglo-French Truce (1405–1407)

By 1405, Louis, Duke of Orléans, sought to expand his influence in Italy, leveraging his marriage to Valentina Visconti, daughter of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, the late Duke of Milan. Holding titles to largely theoretical fiefs in northern Italy, Louis aimed to persuade King Charles VI of France to intervene militarily on his behalf, potentially bringing France into renewed conflict with Italian states.

At the same time, Louis appeared eager to undermine the Anglo-French truce, going so far as to provoke Henry IV of England to a duel. This was a direct challenge to John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, whose economic interests in Flanders depended heavily on continued trade with England.

I. Louis of Orléans and His Italian Ambitions

• As son-in-law of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Louis claimed fiefdoms in Italy, though these were largely hypothetical.
• He wanted French intervention to secure actual territorial power, possibly drawing France into Italian conflicts.
• His ambitions threatened to divert royal resources from the pressing domestic and English conflicts, something John the Fearless strongly opposed.

II. Threatening the Anglo-French Truce

• The truce between France and England, signed at Leulinghen in 1389, had maintained peace for over a decade, stabilizing trade relations.
• Louis' provocations toward Henry IV, including a possible challenge to a duel, threatened to shatter the fragile truce, potentially reigniting the Hundred Years’ War.
• John the Fearless, concerned about the economic well-being of Flanders, which was heavily reliant on English wool imports, could not allow this.

III. John the Fearless' Economic Concerns

• Flemish industry was entirely dependent on imported English wool, making the region extremely vulnerable to an English embargo.
• If the truce collapsed, Flemish merchants and cloth producers would suffer, creating economic instability in Burgundy’s most valuable territories.
• John, therefore, opposed any aggression toward England, as it would jeopardize the prosperity of Flandersand undermine his own political power.

IV. Escalation of the Burgundian-Orléanist Rivalry

• Louis’ reckless policies heightened tensions with John the Fearless, as the two competed for control over France during Charles VI’s mental instability.
• Their rivalry would soon escalate into outright conflict, culminating in the assassination of Louis of Orléans in 1407, ordered by John the Fearless.

V. Consequences and Legacy

• Louis’ foreign policy and provocations toward England further destabilized France, exacerbating internal divisions within the royal court.
• John the Fearless’ opposition to war with England aligned him with merchants and economic elites, strengthening his support among the bourgeoisie of Paris and Flanders.
• The growing feud between Orléans and Burgundy set the stage for the Armagnac-Burgundian Civil War (1407–1435), a conflict that would cripple France for decades.

The Duke of Orléans’ ambitions in Italy and his reckless hostility toward England in 1405–1407 placed France’s fragile peace at risk, prompting John the Fearless to take drastic measures to protect his economic and political interests, ultimately leading to the assassination of Louis and the outbreak of civil war.

John the Fearless and the Struggle for Power at the French Court (1405)

Following the death of his father, Philip the Bold (1404), John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, sought to continue Burgundian dominance at the French royal court, taking advantage of the mental instability of King Charles VI. However, his position was challenged by his rival, Louis of Orléans, the king’s younger brother, who was amassing wealth and influence at Burgundy’s expense.

I. John the Fearless: Duke of Burgundy and Count of Flanders

• In 1405, John became Count of Flanders upon the death of his mother, Marguerite of Flanders, making him the most powerful prince in the Low Countries.
• His new title further strengthened his economic base, as Flanders was one of Europe’s wealthiest regions, but he still needed French royal patronage to maintain his influence.

II. The Financial Disadvantage of Burgundy vs. Orléans

• Unlike his father, John struggled to secure the same financial support from the crown.
• Philip the Bold had received 200,000 livres annually from the royal treasury, but John now had to settle for just 37,000 livres, limiting his ability to fund his political ambitions.
• Meanwhile, Louis of Orléans controlled 90% of his income from royal finances, allowing him to:
  • Buy lands and fortresses along the eastern borders of France, a region Burgundy viewed as its natural sphere of influence.
  • Expand his influence at court, gaining favor from Queen Isabeau of Bavaria and her allies.

III. The Intensifying Burgundian-Orléanist Rivalry

• John, lacking the charisma and fiery reputation of his father, saw his court influence wane, as the king’s largesse favored Orléans instead.
• With tensions rising, John began seeking alternative ways to reclaim dominance, leading him toward increasingly aggressive tactics.
• This financial and territorial struggle set the stage for open hostilities, culminating in the assassination of Louis of Orléans in 1407, orchestrated by John himself.

IV. Consequences and the Road to Civil War

• The rivalry between Burgundy and Orléans soon escalated into full-scale civil war between the Armagnacs (Orléanist faction) and Burgundians, plunging France into decades of internal strife.
• With John’s control over the royal court weakening, he resorted to direct action, which would ultimately destabilize the entire French monarchy during the ongoing Hundred Years’ War.

By 1405, John the Fearless found himself politically and financially outmaneuvered by Louis of Orléans, forcing him to abandon diplomacy in favor of ruthless power struggles, leading to one of the most destructive civil wars in French history.