The Middle East: 45–34 BCE

Caesar’s Ambitions and Antony’s Eastern Campaigns

Following his decisive victory in the Roman civil war, Julius Caesar plans an ambitious campaign against the Parthian Empire in 44 BCE, aiming to avenge the catastrophic defeat suffered by Marcus Licinius Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae. Caesar intends first to pacify Dacia before proceeding eastward into Parthian territory. However, Caesar's assassination halts these plans abruptly, plunging Rome into further turmoil.

Stability returns momentarily when Caesar’s assassins are defeated at the Battle of Philippi, ensuring the dominance of the Second Triumvirate. Yet Roman preoccupation with internal conflicts, notably the revolt of Sextus Pompey in Sicily, provides an opportunity for Parthia to exploit Rome’s vulnerability. In a bold strike, Parthian forces invade Roman-held Syria and the client kingdom of Judea. The Parthians overthrow Hyrcanus II, the Judean high priest and puppet Roman ruler, imprisoning him in Seleucia. In his place, they install the pro-Parthian Hasmonean prince, Antigonus, the last surviving son of former king Aristobulus II, whom Rome had previously deposed. Antigonus ensures Hyrcanus can never reclaim the high priesthood by mutilating him, biting off his ears to permanently disqualify him from office.

Capitalizing on Rome's internal discord, the Parthians forge an alliance with Quintus Labienus, son of Caesar's former general and antagonist Titus Labienus. Together, they penetrate deep into western Anatolia, successfully defeating Roman forces commanded by Decidius Saxa. This triumph proves short-lived, as a seasoned Roman army under Publius Ventidius Bassus decisively drives the invaders from Roman territories.

In 37 BCE, with the direct support of Mark Antony—one of the triumvirs and lover of Egyptian Queen Cleopatra VII—Herod, son-in-law of Hyrcanus, recaptures Jerusalem, reinstating Roman influence over Judea. With the successful suppression of the Sicilian revolt the following year, Antony turns his attention eastward toward the Parthian Empire itself. He advances into Atropatene (modern Iranian Azerbaijan) leading approximately one hundred thousand legionaries, bolstered by contingents from Roman client kingdoms including Armenia, Galatia, Cappadocia, and sovereign Pontus.

Antony's ambitious campaign ends disastrously near the fortress-city of Phraaspa, capital of Atropatene. A tactical blunder leads to severe Roman losses, compounded by harsh winter conditions during the retreat, resulting in the deaths of thousands of Roman soldiers and auxiliary forces. Antony’s army suffers a loss of more than a quarter of its strength.

Undeterred, Antony launches another campaign—funded again by Egyptian resources—successfully invading Armenia. Upon his return in 34 BCE, Antony orchestrates a mock Roman triumph in the streets of Alexandria, a spectacular display that parodies Rome’s traditional military celebrations. During the climactic moment, surrounded by Cleopatra and her children, Antony makes a significant political declaration, publicly ending his alliance with Octavian, thus setting the stage for the impending conflict that will reshape the Roman world.

Near East (45–34 BCE): Roman-Parthian Rivalry and Jewish Turmoil

In 44 BCE, following his victory in the Roman civil war, Julius Caesar planned a campaign against the Parthian Empire to avenge Rome’s earlier defeat at the Battle of Carrhae. However, Caesar’s assassination prevented these ambitions from being realized. In the resulting power vacuum, Parthia took advantage by attacking Roman-controlled territories, notably Syria and the client kingdom of Judea. The Judean high priest and Roman ally, Hyrcanus II, was captured and mutilated by the pro-Parthian Hasmonean claimant Antigonus, effectively ending his ability to serve as high priest.

The Parthians, allied with Quintus Labienus, penetrated deep into western Anatolia, defeating the Roman general Decidius Saxa. The Roman Republic, under the command of Publius Ventidius Bassus, responded decisively, driving the invaders out and stabilizing the region. In 37 BCE, Herod, son-in-law of Hyrcanus, returned to Judea with the backing of Mark Antony, a triumvir and ally of Egyptian queen Cleopatra VII, successfully recapturing Jerusalem and establishing himself as the client king.

Antony then launched an ambitious campaign against Parthia itself, funded by Egyptian resources. His invasion of Atropatene (modern Iranian Azerbaijan) in 36 BCE ended disastrously at Praaspa, resulting in severe Roman losses during the harsh winter retreat. Despite this, Antony successfully invaded and subdued Armenia two years later. On returning to Alexandria in 34 BCE, Antony held a lavish mock triumph, publicly severing his alliance with Octavian, thereby setting the stage for the impending Roman civil war.

Legacy of the Era

The era from 45 to 34 BCE significantly intensified Roman-Parthian rivalry and reshaped the political landscape of the Near East, notably in Judea. The decisive actions of Roman commanders, coupled with the strategic maneuverings of local rulers like Herod, established new power dynamics, laying the groundwork for the lasting Roman dominance and profoundly influencing the cultural and political trajectories of the region.