The papacy has been hostile toward the Normans until this time, considering them an anarchist force that upset the political structure in southern Italy—a structure based on a balance of power between the Greeks and the Lombards.

The schism that had taken place between the Greek and Latin churches in 1054 has steadily worsened the relations between Constantinople and Rome, and eventually the papacy had realized that Norman conquests over the Greeks in Italy can work to its advantage.

Robert Guiscard’s plan to expel the Arabs from Sicily and restore Christianity to the island also finds favor in the eyes of Pope Nicholas II.

Guiscard, in his progression from gang leader to commander of mercenary troops to conqueror, has emerged as a shrewd and perspicacious political figure.

Nicholas II, to secure his position, had at once entered into relations with the Normans.

The Pope wants to re-take Sicily for Christianity, and he sees the Normans as the perfect force to crush the Muslims.

The Normans are by this time firmly established in southern Italy, and later in the year 1059 the new alliance is cemented at Melfi, where the Pope, accompanied by Hildebrand, Cardinal Humbert and the abbot Desiderius of Monte Cassino, solemnly invests Robert Guiscard with the duchies of Apulia, Calabria and Sicily, and Richard of Aversa with the principality of Capua, in return for oaths of fealty and the promise of assistance in guarding the rights of the Church.

This despite the inconvenient fact that the Greeks still hold Italy's toe and heel.

There are two reasons for this change in papal politics.

First, the Normans had shown to be a strong (and close by) enemy, while the emperor a weak (and far away) ally.

Second, Pope Nicholas II had decided to cut the bonds between the Roman Church and the Holy Roman emperors, reclaiming for "the Roman cardinals the right to elect the pope, thus reducing the importance of the emperor and initiating the stirrings of what will come to be called the Investiture Controversy.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (1060–1071 CE): Papal Reforms, Norman Expansion, and Early Crusading Efforts

The era 1060–1071 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is marked by critical developments in papal reform and ecclesiastical independence, significant Norman military expansion in southern Italy and Sicily, and early international efforts against Muslim-held territories in Iberia, presaging the Crusades.

Papal Reform and Electoral Independence

In 1061 CE, following the death of Pope Nicholas II, a landmark papal election is conducted in accordance with Nicholas II’s earlier papal bull, In Nomine Domini. For the first time in the history of the Roman Catholic Church, the cardinal bishops exclusively elect the pope, marking a significant step towards papal electoral independence and institutional reform. Bishop Anselmo de Baggio of Lucca, not a cardinal himself but noted as one of the Pataria reform movement’s founders, is elected as Pope Alexander II. Due to strong opposition, Alexander II's coronation takes place at nightfall on October 1, 1061, in Rome's San Pietro in Vincoli Basilica, as St. Peter's Basilica remains inaccessible for the ceremony.

Norman Conquests in Southern Italy and Sicily

Norman adventurers intensify their conquests in southern Italy, further challenging Byzantine (Greek) and Lombard dominance in the region. Led notably by the Guiscard brothers, Robert and Roger, the Normans consolidate power in Apulia and Calabria, effectively terminating Byzantine rule. Their military campaigns soon extend into Sicily, initiating a prolonged conflict against Muslim control and laying the foundation for lasting Norman influence throughout southern Italy and Sicily.

Barbastro Campaign: A Prelude to the Crusades

In 1064 CE, Pope Alexander II sanctions a significant international military expedition targeting the Muslim-held city of Barbastro in northern Iberia. Comprising warriors from across Western Europe, this successful siege symbolizes a notable early effort within the broader Reconquista movement. Its explicitly papal sanction and international participation distinctly anticipate the character and methods of the subsequent Crusades of the late eleventh and twelfth centuries.

Political Realignments in Muslim Al-Andalus

In Muslim Iberia, significant political realignments occur as the emirate of Seville, dominated by Arabs, strategically asserts dominance over the Berber factions, expanding its influence to the Atlantic coast. Concurrently, the Emirate of Toledo emerges as the preeminent Muslim polity in Iberia, replacing the political primacy previously held by the defunct Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba, reflecting continued fragmentation yet strategic reconsolidation among the taifa kingdoms.

Continued Cultural and Scholarly Vitality

Jewish and Mozarab scholarly activities remain robust, particularly in intellectual centers such as Lucena, sustaining their critical roles in intercultural dialogue, learning, and commerce across the Iberian Peninsula. These vibrant communities continue to preserve and enrich cultural traditions despite the region's shifting political landscape.

Legacy of the Era

The era 1060–1071 CE is distinguished by pivotal reforms in papal governance, aggressive Norman military expansion, and early international religiously motivated campaigns in Iberia. Collectively, these developments presage significant cultural, political, and religious transformations, shaping the historical trajectory of Mediterranean Southwest Europe well into subsequent centuries.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (1060–1071 CE): Papal Reforms, Norman Expansion, and Early Crusading Efforts

The era 1060–1071 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is marked by critical developments in papal reform and ecclesiastical independence, significant Norman military expansion in southern Italy and Sicily, and early international efforts against Muslim-held territories in Iberia, presaging the Crusades.

Papal Reform and Electoral Independence

In 1061 CE, following the death of Pope Nicholas II, a landmark papal election is conducted in accordance with Nicholas II’s earlier papal bull, In Nomine Domini. For the first time in the history of the Roman Catholic Church, the cardinal bishops exclusively elect the pope, marking a significant step towards papal electoral independence and institutional reform. Bishop Anselmo de Baggio of Lucca, not a cardinal himself but noted as one of the Pataria reform movement’s founders, is elected as Pope Alexander II. Due to strong opposition, Alexander II's coronation takes place at nightfall on October 1, 1061, in Rome's San Pietro in Vincoli Basilica, as St. Peter's Basilica remains inaccessible for the ceremony.

Norman Conquests in Southern Italy and Sicily

Norman adventurers intensify their conquests in southern Italy, further challenging Byzantine (Greek) and Lombard dominance in the region. Led notably by the Guiscard brothers, Robert and Roger, the Normans consolidate power in Apulia and Calabria, effectively terminating Byzantine rule. Their military campaigns soon extend into Sicily, initiating a prolonged conflict against Muslim control and laying the foundation for lasting Norman influence throughout southern Italy and Sicily.

Barbastro Campaign: A Prelude to the Crusades

In 1064 CE, Pope Alexander II sanctions a significant international military expedition targeting the Muslim-held city of Barbastro in northern Iberia. Comprising warriors from across Western Europe, this successful siege symbolizes a notable early effort within the broader Reconquista movement. Its explicitly papal sanction and international participation distinctly anticipate the character and methods of the subsequent Crusades of the late eleventh and twelfth centuries.

Political Realignments in Muslim Al-Andalus

In Muslim Iberia, significant political realignments occur as the emirate of Seville, dominated by Arabs, strategically asserts dominance over the Berber factions, expanding its influence to the Atlantic coast. Concurrently, the Emirate of Toledo emerges as the preeminent Muslim polity in Iberia, replacing the political primacy previously held by the defunct Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba, reflecting continued fragmentation yet strategic reconsolidation among the taifa kingdoms.

Continued Cultural and Scholarly Vitality

Jewish and Mozarab scholarly activities remain robust, particularly in intellectual centers such as Lucena, sustaining their critical roles in intercultural dialogue, learning, and commerce across the Iberian Peninsula. These vibrant communities continue to preserve and enrich cultural traditions despite the region's shifting political landscape.

Legacy of the Era

The era 1060–1071 CE is distinguished by pivotal reforms in papal governance, aggressive Norman military expansion, and early international religiously motivated campaigns in Iberia. Collectively, these developments presage significant cultural, political, and religious transformations, shaping the historical trajectory of Mediterranean Southwest Europe well into subsequent centuries.

The cardinal bishops are the sole electors of the pope for the first time in the history of the Roman Catholic Church in the papal election following the death of Pope Nicholas II, held in San Pietro in Vincoli ("Saint Peter in Chains") in Rome on September 30, 1061, in accordance with Nicholas II's bull, In Nomine Domini.

Bishop Anselmo de Baggio of Lucca, a non-cardinal and one of the founders of the Pataria, is elected Pope Alexander II and crowned at nightfall on October 1, 1061, in San Pietro in Vincoli Basilica because opposition to the election makes a coronation in St. Peter's Basilica impossible.

Pope Alexander II sanctions an international expedition to take the Spanish city of Barbastro from the Moors.

A large army composed of elements from all over Western Europe takes part in the successful siege of the city on Barbastro in 1064).

The war is part of the Reconquista, but in its international and papal character it presages the Crusades of the next two centuries.

In Muslim al-Andalus, the Arab emirate of Seville drives a wedge through the Berbers to the Atlantic, and the emirate of Toledo has replaced the Umayyad caliphate as Iberia’s preeminent Muslim polity.

Bishop Anselmo de Baggio of Lucca, born in Milan, has been an energetic coadjutor with Hildebrand of Sovana in endeavoring to suppress simony and enforce the clerical celibacy.

The papal election of 1061, which Hildebrand has arranged in conformity with the papal decree of 1059, is not sanctioned by the imperial court of Germany.

Bishop Anselm, a non-cardinal and one of the founders of the Pataria, is elected Pope Alexander II and crowned at nightfall on October 1, 1061 in San Pietro in Vincoli Basilica because opposition to the election makes a coronation in St. Peter's Basilica impossible.

Anselmo has the support of his friend Cardinal Hildebrand, a driving force behind the promulgation of In Nomine Domini and the future Pope Gregory VII, Godfrey III, Duke of Lower Lorraine, and the Norman forces of Robert Guiscard, present at the election in fulfillment of a security guarantee Guiscard had made to Nicholas II when appointed Duke of Apulia and Calabria.

Although Anselmo is well-known and respected within the German court, the assent of the Holy Roman Emperor to the election is not sought.

Displeased with the new process, a group of Roman nobles and Lombard bishops, let by Guibert, the royal chancellor of Italy, beseeches Agnes de Poitou, empress-regent of Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, to nominate Pietro Cadalo, Bishop of Parma, to succeed Nicholas II.

Cadalo is elected Antipope Honorius II at a synod convoked at Basle on October 28, 1061, at which no cardinals are present.

Eleven monks of Saint-Evroul-sur-Ouche had been banished from Normandy in January 1061 as a result of several quarrels between the barons of Duke William I of Normandy, Robert de Grantmesnil, his nephew Berengar, half-sister Judith (future wife of Roger I of Sicily).

They had headed to the Mezzogiorno, where all had been well received by Pope Alexander II, who had just succeeded Pope Nicholas II, and who, after hearing of their troubles in Normandy, had given Robert and his monks the temporary use of the church of Saint-Paul the Apostle in Rome.

To find a more permanent situation Robert had sought help from his cousin, William of Montreuil, at this time in the service of Pope Alexander II, who had given Robert and his monks half the town of Aquino.

He also sought help from Richard I of Capua, Prince of Capua who, as it turned out, made Robert many empty promises.

In disgust, Robert had turned to Robert Guiscard, who had treated the abbot with great respect and invited him and his monks to settle in his Duchy of Calabria.

Robert founds the abbey of Sant'Eufemia Lamezia in Calabria in about 1061 or 1062, and Guiscard also grants him the abbey of Venosa in 1062.

Antipope Honorius II proceeds to march on Rome, defeating Alexander II and taking control of St. Peter's Basilica and its environs on April 14, 1062.

The intervention of Godfrey III persuades Honorius II and Alexander II to retire to Parma and Lucca respectively, awaiting mediation between Godfrey III and the Imperial court.

However, Anno II, Archbishop of Cologne, has engineered a coup d'état against the empress regent.

As regent, Anno had convened the Council of Augsburg (October 1062) and sent Burchard II, Bishop of Halberstadt as an envoy to Rome.

Burchard clears Alexander II of charges of simony and recognizes him as the new pontiff.

Agnes of Poitou has served since her husband's death in 1056, as regent during on behalf of young son, Henry IV.

Despite being related to kings of Italy and Burgundy, Agnes is not known as a quality leader.

During her rule, she has given away three duchies, Bavaria, Swabia, and Carinthia, to relatives.

Agnes opposes church reform, and takes the side of Italian dissidents who do as well.

Pope Stephen IX, unable to take actual possession of Rome due to the Roman aristocracy's election of an antipope, Benedict X, had sent Hildebrand of Sovana and Anselm of Lucca (respectively, the future Popes Gregory VII and Alexander II) to Germany to obtain recognition from Agnes.

Stephen had died before being able to return to Rome, but Agnes' help had been instrumental in letting Hildebrand depose the Antipope in 1059 and with Agnes' support replace him by the Bishop of Florence, Nicholas II.

Henry IV and his mother in early April 1062, are staying in the palace of Kaiserswerth (today a quarter in Düsseldorf).

Here they both meet with Archbishop Anno II of Cologne.

After banqueting together, Anno invites the eleven-year-old boy to visit a magnificent ship that he has moored in the River Rhine nearby.

Anno then takes the king to Cologne and blackmails Empress Agnes to hand over the Imperial Regalia.

As a consequence of what is referred to as referred to as the Coup of Kaiserswerth, the power of the state falls into the hands of the rebels, who, in addition to Anno and Count Egbert of Brunswick, mentioned by Lampert, also include Otto of Northeim and the Archbishops Adalbert of Bremen and Siegfried I of Mainz.

Anno, born around 1010, belonging to the Swabian family of the von Steusslingen, and educated at Bamberg, had become confessor to the Emperor Henry III, who in 1956 had appointed him archbishop of Cologne.

He has taken a prominent part in the government of Germany during the minority of Henry IV and is the leader of the party that in 1062 seizes the person of Henry in the coup of Kaiserswerth, and deprives his mother, the empress Agnes, of power.

Henry is brought to Cologne, and despite jumping overboard from a board to escape, he is recaptured again.

Agnes resigns, as ransom, from the throne, and Anno takes her place as regent.

After the dethroning, she moves to Rome, where she will act as a mediator and peacemaker between Henry IV and his enemies.

Anno’s first move is to back Pope Alexander II against the antipope Honorius II, whom Agnes had initially recognized but subsequently left without support.

Anno's rule proves unpopular.

For a short time, Anno exercises the chief authority in the kingdom, but he is soon obliged to share this with Adalbert, Archbishop of Bremen, and Siegfried I, Archbishop of Mainz, retaining for himself the supervision of Henry's education and the title of magister.