Pope Stephen IX enforces the policies of the Gregorian Reform as to clerical celibacy.

He is planning for the expulsion of the Normans from Italy and the elevation of his brother to the imperial throne, when he is seized by a severe illness, from which he only partially and temporarily recovered.

Stephen IX dies at Florence on March 29, 1058.

He is considered by the current-day Roman Catholic Church to have been succeeded by Pope Nicholas II, though others consider his successor to be Pope Benedict X, officially regarded as an antipope.

Giovanni is elected pope on April 4, 1058, his election having been arranged by his family.

This is in violation, however, of a decree by the late pope that no election is to be held until the return of Cardinal Hildebrand from a mission to Germany.

Hildebrand (later Pope Gregory VII) had been sent by the late Pope Stephen to the court of Empress Agnes (mother and regent for Emperor Henry IV, at this time a minor), who had questioned the validity of Stephen's own election.

As a result, a number of cardinals allege that the election had been irregular, and that votes had been bought; these cardinals are forced to flee Rome.

Hildebrand, on hearing of Benedict X's election, decides to oppose it, and obtains the support for the election of Gérard de Bourgogne instead.

Those cardinals who had opposed Benedict X's election meet at Siena in December 1058 and elect Gérard as Pope instead.

He takes the name Nicholas II.

Pope Nicholas II succeeds Pope Stephen IX as the 155th Pope, installed in Rome in opposition to Antipope Benedict X on January 24, 1059.

Meanwhile, Peter Damian and Bishop Anselm of Lucca have been sent by Nicholas II to Milan to adjust the difference between the Patarenes and the archbishop and clergy.

The result is a fresh triumph for the papacy.

Archbishop Wido, in the face of the ruinous conflict in the Church of Milan, is forced to submit to the terms proposed by the legates, which involve the principle of the subordination of Milan to Rome; the new relation is advertised by the unwilling attendance of Wido and the other Milanese bishops at the council summoned to the Lateran palace in April 1059.

The organization of the senior priests of certain parish churches in Rome has, by the eleventh century, developed into the sacred college of cardinals.

Initially functioning as assistants and counselors to the popes, the cardinals become, in 1059, the papal electors as well, when, on April 13, Pope Nicholas II, with the agreement of the Lateran Council, issues the papal bull In nomine Domini making the College of Cardinals the sole voters in the papal conclave for the election of popes.

This council not only continues the Hildebrandine reforms by sharpening the discipline of the clergy, but marks an epoch in the history of the papacy by its famous regulation of future elections to the Holy See.

Previously, Papal elections had been effectively controlled by the Roman aristocracy, unless the Emperor was strong enough to be able to intervene from a distance to impose his will.

As a result of the battles with the Antipope Benedict X, Nicholas II wishes to reform papal elections.

At the synod held in the Lateran at Easter, 1059, Pope Nicholas brings 113 bishops to Rome to consider a number of reforms, including a change in the election procedure.

The electoral reform adopted by this synod amounted to a declaration of independence on the part of the church.

Henceforth, popes are to be selected by the Cardinals in assembly at Rome.

The papacy has been hostile toward the Normans until this time, considering them an anarchist force that upset the political structure in southern Italy—a structure based on a balance of power between the Greeks and the Lombards.

The schism that had taken place between the Greek and Latin churches in 1054 has steadily worsened the relations between Constantinople and Rome, and eventually the papacy had realized that Norman conquests over the Greeks in Italy can work to its advantage.

Robert Guiscard’s plan to expel the Arabs from Sicily and restore Christianity to the island also finds favor in the eyes of Pope Nicholas II.

Guiscard, in his progression from gang leader to commander of mercenary troops to conqueror, has emerged as a shrewd and perspicacious political figure.

Nicholas II, to secure his position, had at once entered into relations with the Normans.

The Pope wants to re-take Sicily for Christianity, and he sees the Normans as the perfect force to crush the Muslims.

The Normans are by this time firmly established in southern Italy, and later in the year 1059 the new alliance is cemented at Melfi, where the Pope, accompanied by Hildebrand, Cardinal Humbert and the abbot Desiderius of Monte Cassino, solemnly invests Robert Guiscard with the duchies of Apulia, Calabria and Sicily, and Richard of Aversa with the principality of Capua, in return for oaths of fealty and the promise of assistance in guarding the rights of the Church.

This despite the inconvenient fact that the Greeks still hold Italy's toe and heel.

There are two reasons for this change in papal politics.

First, the Normans had shown to be a strong (and close by) enemy, while the emperor a weak (and far away) ally.

Second, Pope Nicholas II had decided to cut the bonds between the Roman Church and the Holy Roman emperors, reclaiming for "the Roman cardinals the right to elect the pope, thus reducing the importance of the emperor and initiating the stirrings of what will come to be called the Investiture Controversy.

The first octagonal baptistry in Florence, which had been erected here in the late fourth or early fifth century, had been replaced or altered by another early Christian baptistry in the sixth century.

Its construction is attributed to Theodolinda, queen of the Lombards (570-628) to seal the conversion of her husband, King Authari.

(In 2007, three original panels were taken on tour to the United States: Atlanta, Chicago and New York.)

The octagon has been a common shape for baptisteries for many centuries since early Christian times.

The number eight is a symbol of regeneration in Christianity, signifying the six days of creation, the Day of Rest, and a day of re-creation through the Sacrament of Baptism.

Other early examples are the Lateran Baptistry (440) that had provided a model for others throughout Italy, the Church of the Saints Sergius and Bacchus (527-536) in Constantinople and the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna (548).

The Baptistery’s location, directly opposite the central door of the Duomo (Cathedral), serves as a symbolic reminder that baptism is the first rite of Christian life.

The earlier baptistry was the city's second basilica after San Lorenzo, outside the northern city wall, and predates the church Santa Reparata.

The granite pilasters were probably taken from the Roman forum sited at the location of the present Piazza della Repubblica.

At that time, the baptistry had been surrounded by a cemetery with Roman sarcophagi, used by important Florentine families as tombs (now in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo).

A new and much larger octagonal Battistero di San Giovanni, believed to be the oldest building in Florence, begins to be constructed in Romanesque style around 1059, evidence of a period of the growing economic and political importance of Florence.

It is reconsecrated on November 6, 1059 by Pope Nicholas II, a Florentine.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (1060–1071 CE): Papal Reforms, Norman Expansion, and Early Crusading Efforts

The era 1060–1071 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is marked by critical developments in papal reform and ecclesiastical independence, significant Norman military expansion in southern Italy and Sicily, and early international efforts against Muslim-held territories in Iberia, presaging the Crusades.

Papal Reform and Electoral Independence

In 1061 CE, following the death of Pope Nicholas II, a landmark papal election is conducted in accordance with Nicholas II’s earlier papal bull, In Nomine Domini. For the first time in the history of the Roman Catholic Church, the cardinal bishops exclusively elect the pope, marking a significant step towards papal electoral independence and institutional reform. Bishop Anselmo de Baggio of Lucca, not a cardinal himself but noted as one of the Pataria reform movement’s founders, is elected as Pope Alexander II. Due to strong opposition, Alexander II's coronation takes place at nightfall on October 1, 1061, in Rome's San Pietro in Vincoli Basilica, as St. Peter's Basilica remains inaccessible for the ceremony.

Norman Conquests in Southern Italy and Sicily

Norman adventurers intensify their conquests in southern Italy, further challenging Byzantine (Greek) and Lombard dominance in the region. Led notably by the Guiscard brothers, Robert and Roger, the Normans consolidate power in Apulia and Calabria, effectively terminating Byzantine rule. Their military campaigns soon extend into Sicily, initiating a prolonged conflict against Muslim control and laying the foundation for lasting Norman influence throughout southern Italy and Sicily.

Barbastro Campaign: A Prelude to the Crusades

In 1064 CE, Pope Alexander II sanctions a significant international military expedition targeting the Muslim-held city of Barbastro in northern Iberia. Comprising warriors from across Western Europe, this successful siege symbolizes a notable early effort within the broader Reconquista movement. Its explicitly papal sanction and international participation distinctly anticipate the character and methods of the subsequent Crusades of the late eleventh and twelfth centuries.

Political Realignments in Muslim Al-Andalus

In Muslim Iberia, significant political realignments occur as the emirate of Seville, dominated by Arabs, strategically asserts dominance over the Berber factions, expanding its influence to the Atlantic coast. Concurrently, the Emirate of Toledo emerges as the preeminent Muslim polity in Iberia, replacing the political primacy previously held by the defunct Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba, reflecting continued fragmentation yet strategic reconsolidation among the taifa kingdoms.

Continued Cultural and Scholarly Vitality

Jewish and Mozarab scholarly activities remain robust, particularly in intellectual centers such as Lucena, sustaining their critical roles in intercultural dialogue, learning, and commerce across the Iberian Peninsula. These vibrant communities continue to preserve and enrich cultural traditions despite the region's shifting political landscape.

Legacy of the Era

The era 1060–1071 CE is distinguished by pivotal reforms in papal governance, aggressive Norman military expansion, and early international religiously motivated campaigns in Iberia. Collectively, these developments presage significant cultural, political, and religious transformations, shaping the historical trajectory of Mediterranean Southwest Europe well into subsequent centuries.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (1060–1071 CE): Papal Reforms, Norman Expansion, and Early Crusading Efforts

The era 1060–1071 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is marked by critical developments in papal reform and ecclesiastical independence, significant Norman military expansion in southern Italy and Sicily, and early international efforts against Muslim-held territories in Iberia, presaging the Crusades.

Papal Reform and Electoral Independence

In 1061 CE, following the death of Pope Nicholas II, a landmark papal election is conducted in accordance with Nicholas II’s earlier papal bull, In Nomine Domini. For the first time in the history of the Roman Catholic Church, the cardinal bishops exclusively elect the pope, marking a significant step towards papal electoral independence and institutional reform. Bishop Anselmo de Baggio of Lucca, not a cardinal himself but noted as one of the Pataria reform movement’s founders, is elected as Pope Alexander II. Due to strong opposition, Alexander II's coronation takes place at nightfall on October 1, 1061, in Rome's San Pietro in Vincoli Basilica, as St. Peter's Basilica remains inaccessible for the ceremony.

Norman Conquests in Southern Italy and Sicily

Norman adventurers intensify their conquests in southern Italy, further challenging Byzantine (Greek) and Lombard dominance in the region. Led notably by the Guiscard brothers, Robert and Roger, the Normans consolidate power in Apulia and Calabria, effectively terminating Byzantine rule. Their military campaigns soon extend into Sicily, initiating a prolonged conflict against Muslim control and laying the foundation for lasting Norman influence throughout southern Italy and Sicily.

Barbastro Campaign: A Prelude to the Crusades

In 1064 CE, Pope Alexander II sanctions a significant international military expedition targeting the Muslim-held city of Barbastro in northern Iberia. Comprising warriors from across Western Europe, this successful siege symbolizes a notable early effort within the broader Reconquista movement. Its explicitly papal sanction and international participation distinctly anticipate the character and methods of the subsequent Crusades of the late eleventh and twelfth centuries.

Political Realignments in Muslim Al-Andalus

In Muslim Iberia, significant political realignments occur as the emirate of Seville, dominated by Arabs, strategically asserts dominance over the Berber factions, expanding its influence to the Atlantic coast. Concurrently, the Emirate of Toledo emerges as the preeminent Muslim polity in Iberia, replacing the political primacy previously held by the defunct Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba, reflecting continued fragmentation yet strategic reconsolidation among the taifa kingdoms.

Continued Cultural and Scholarly Vitality

Jewish and Mozarab scholarly activities remain robust, particularly in intellectual centers such as Lucena, sustaining their critical roles in intercultural dialogue, learning, and commerce across the Iberian Peninsula. These vibrant communities continue to preserve and enrich cultural traditions despite the region's shifting political landscape.

Legacy of the Era

The era 1060–1071 CE is distinguished by pivotal reforms in papal governance, aggressive Norman military expansion, and early international religiously motivated campaigns in Iberia. Collectively, these developments presage significant cultural, political, and religious transformations, shaping the historical trajectory of Mediterranean Southwest Europe well into subsequent centuries.

The cardinal bishops are the sole electors of the pope for the first time in the history of the Roman Catholic Church in the papal election following the death of Pope Nicholas II, held in San Pietro in Vincoli ("Saint Peter in Chains") in Rome on September 30, 1061, in accordance with Nicholas II's bull, In Nomine Domini.

Bishop Anselmo de Baggio of Lucca, a non-cardinal and one of the founders of the Pataria, is elected Pope Alexander II and crowned at nightfall on October 1, 1061, in San Pietro in Vincoli Basilica because opposition to the election makes a coronation in St. Peter's Basilica impossible.

Robert conquers Taranto in May 1060, but the imperial army reoccupies the city in October