The Great Moravian Empire is located at the crossroads of two civilizations: the German lands in the West and Byzantium in the East.

From the West the Franks (a Germanic people) conduct destructive raids into Moravian territory, and German priests and monks come to spread Christianity in its Roman form among the Slavs.

Mojmir and his fellow chiefs are baptized at Regensburg in modern-day Germany.

Rastislav (850-70), Mojmir's successor, fears the German influence as a threat to his personal rule, however, and turns to Constantinople.

At Rastislav's request, Emperor Michael III dispatches the monks Cyril and Methodius to the Great Moravian Empire to introduce Eastern Christian rites and liturgy in the Slavic language.

A new Slavonic script, the Cyrillic alphabet, was devised.

Methodius is invested by the pope as archbishop of Moravia, but Svatopluk (871-94), Rastislav's successor, chooses to ally himself with the German clerics.

After the death of Methodius in 885, the Great Moravian Empire is drawn into the sphere of influence of the Roman Catholic Church.

As a result, the Czechs and Slovaks will adopt the Latin alphabet and become further differentiated from the Eastern and Southern Slavs and, who will continue to use the Cyrillic alphabet and adhere to Eastern Orthodoxy.

East Central Europe (832–843 CE): Rastislav’s Moravia, Carolingian Turmoil, and Saxon Dynastic Foundations

Between 832 and 843 CE, East Central Europe—comprising modern-day Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary, and the eastern parts of Germany and Austria lying east of 10°E and north of a line from roughly 48.2°N at 10°E southeastward to the Austro-Slovenian border near 46.7°N, 15.4°E—witnessed significant shifts driven by internal Carolingian instability and rising Slavic and Saxon political autonomy. In Great Moravia, the ascension of Rastislav (r. 846–870) laid the groundwork for greater independence. Saxon noble houses, particularly the emerging Liudolfings, further solidified their regional influence, while the wider Carolingian Empire, wracked by internal divisions culminating in the landmark Treaty of Verdun (843 CE), saw its hold on East Central Europe challenged.

Political and Military Developments

Rise of Rastislav and Moravian Autonomy

• Although officially ascending in 846, Rastislav began exerting political influence in the early 840s, consolidating Great Moravia’s territories, strengthening internal governance, and asserting greater independence from Carolingian overlordship.

• Rastislav skillfully navigated relationships with neighboring Frankish rulers, setting the stage for Moravia’s diplomatic and military prominence.

Carolingian Internal Struggles and Treaty of Verdun (843 CE)

• Following the death of Emperor Louis the Pious in 840 CE, the Carolingian Empire plunged into civil war among his sons, Louis the German, Lothair I, and Charles the Bald.

• The resulting Treaty of Verdun (843 CE) partitioned the empire, with East Francia, including Bavaria, Thuringia, and Saxony, falling under Louis the German, significantly reshaping the political landscape of East Central Europe.

Strengthening of Saxon Noble Dynasties

• Saxon noble power consolidated under influential figures like Liudolf, whose expanding territory and strategic marriages began to elevate the Liudolfing (Ottonian) lineage into a dominant regional force.

• The groundwork laid by Liudolf would eventually position the Liudolfings as future rulers of East Francia.

Economic and Technological Developments

Economic Continuity and Growth

• Regional trade networks remained robust despite Carolingian internal disruptions, sustaining prosperity in Bavaria, Thuringia, Saxony, and Moravia through commerce in metals, textiles, agricultural goods, and luxury items.

Infrastructure and Fortifications

• Infrastructure and defensive fortifications across the Carolingian frontier, Saxon territories, and Moravia continued to improve, reflecting sustained economic activity, administrative stability, and military preparedness.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Cultural Flourishing in Great Moravia

• Rastislav’s Moravia experienced intensified cultural developments, expressed through distinctive artistic styles, ceramics, metalwork, and fortifications, reinforcing a unified Slavic identity.

Continued Saxon Cultural Integration

• Saxon territories deepened their cultural assimilation into the Carolingian framework through religious patronage, the growth of monasteries such as Gandersheim Abbey, and the adoption of Frankish administrative customs, shaping a new Saxon aristocratic culture.

Settlement and Urban Development

Expansion of Moravian Urban Centers

• Under Rastislav, Moravian settlements grew rapidly into influential centers of governance, commerce, and culture, laying the groundwork for the significant political and ecclesiastical hubs that defined Great Moravia.

Stable Growth in Carolingian and Saxon Urban Areas

• Bavarian, Thuringian, and Saxon settlements continued their growth, supported by stable governance and regional commerce, reinforcing their importance within East Francia.

Social and Religious Developments

Advancing Christianization

• Christianity continued its rapid expansion throughout the region, especially in Saxony and Moravia, where local leaders actively patronized missionary efforts, solidifying the integration of these territories into the Christian European cultural sphere.

Emergence of Noble Dynasties and Social Hierarchies

• The growing power of noble dynasties, notably the Liudolfings in Saxony and Mojmirid rulers in Moravia, solidified hierarchical social structures that profoundly influenced subsequent regional governance and societal organization.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period 832–843 CE significantly reshaped East Central Europe's historical trajectory. Rastislav's ascendance in Moravia, Carolingian internal strife marked by the Treaty of Verdun, and the steady rise of powerful Saxon noble dynasties together laid critical foundations for future political entities. These events decisively influenced the region's medieval history, reshaping its cultural identities, political boundaries, and social hierarchies for generations.

East Central Europe (844–855 CE): Consolidation of Great Moravia, Liudolfing Saxony, and Strengthening of East Francia

Between 844 and 855 CE, East Central Europe—comprising modern-day Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary, and the eastern parts of Germany and Austria east of 10°E and north of a line from approximately 48.2°N at 10°E to the Austro-Slovenian border near 46.7°N, 15.4°E—experienced notable political, cultural, and economic stabilization. The period saw the firm establishment of Great Moravia under Rastislav, rising Saxon political power through the influential Liudolfing dynasty, and growing stability within East Francia under the rule of Louis the German. These developments reinforced regional identities and laid important groundwork for future medieval kingdoms and dynastic struggles.

Political and Military Developments

Rastislav and the Consolidation of Great Moravia

• Under Prince Rastislav (r. 846–870 CE), Great Moravia grew into a prominent Slavic polity, pursuing strategic autonomy from Carolingian dominance. Rastislav strengthened internal governance, established fortified settlements, and expanded his political reach diplomatically and militarily across neighboring Slavic territories.

Rise of the Liudolfing Dynasty in Saxony

• Saxon noble power reached new prominence under Liudolf (d. 866), whose dynasty established influential territorial and ecclesiastical centers along the Leine River. Liudolf's family, now called the Liudolfings, laid crucial foundations for what would later become the Ottonian imperial dynasty.

Stabilization of East Francia Under Louis the German

• In the aftermath of the Carolingian partition at the Treaty of Verdun (843 CE), Louis the German (r. 843–876)effectively stabilized and governed East Francia. His authority over Bavaria, Thuringia, and Saxony strengthened these territories' integration within a coherent political and administrative framework.

Economic and Technological Developments

Prosperity in Regional Trade Networks

• Strong commercial links among Moravia, Saxony, Bavaria, and Thuringia supported vibrant trade in metals, textiles, agricultural products, and luxury goods. Economic stability promoted regional prosperity and facilitated sustained urban and rural development.

Infrastructure and Defensive Improvements

• Continued investments in fortifications, roads, and administrative infrastructure bolstered regional security and facilitated economic and military coordination across Moravia, Saxony, and East Francia’s eastern frontier.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Moravian Cultural Flourishing

• Rastislav actively promoted a distinct Moravian culture, fostering the growth of unique artistic styles, ceramics, metalwork, and architecture. This cultural enrichment solidified Great Moravia’s identity and prestige within the region.

Carolingian Cultural Influence in Saxony

• Saxon territories further integrated Carolingian cultural traditions, particularly through religious foundations like Gandersheim Abbey (founded in 852 CE by Liudolf and Bishop Altfrid of Hildesheim), embedding Christianity and Frankish administrative customs firmly into Saxon society.

Settlement and Urban Development

Moravian Urban Expansion

• Major Moravian settlements continued their growth, becoming influential centers of administration, trade, and cultural production, providing essential foundations for later medieval urban centers.

Saxon and Bavarian Urban Stability

• Urban areas in Saxony, Bavaria, and Thuringia maintained steady growth, benefiting from stable governance, improved infrastructure, and active commercial trade networks, reinforcing their regional importance within East Francia.

Social and Religious Developments

Deepening of Christianization

• The sustained efforts of Carolingian missionaries and local leaders expanded Christianity significantly throughout Saxon and Moravian territories, reinforcing religious institutions and integrating East Central Europe deeper into the Christian cultural sphere.

Consolidation of Dynastic Power

• Prominent dynasties, notably the Liudolfings in Saxony and Mojmirid rulers in Moravia, further solidified social hierarchies and leadership structures, shaping regional political and social organization significantly for future generations.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period 844–855 CE marked critical developments in East Central Europe’s historical trajectory. Rastislav's political and cultural consolidation in Great Moravia, the rise of influential Saxon noble families like the Liudolfings, and Louis the German’s stabilization of East Francia collectively reshaped regional identities and governance structures. These transformations established lasting foundations for subsequent medieval kingdoms, significantly influencing East Central Europe's political, social, and cultural landscape for centuries.

Between 856 and 867 CE, East Central Europe—comprising modern-day Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary, and the eastern parts of Germany and Austria east of 10°E and north of a line from approximately 48.2°N at 10°E to the Austro-Slovenian border near 46.7°N, 15.4°E—continued its political and cultural consolidation. Great Moravia, under Rastislav, asserted further autonomy from Carolingian rule, while the Liudolfing dynasty in Saxony solidified its influential position. Simultaneously, Louis the German’s reign in East Francia strengthened frontier stability, laying the foundations for future territorial expansion and the political structures of medieval Europe.

Political and Military Developments

Rastislav’s Assertion of Moravian Independence

• Rastislav (r. 846–870) deepened Moravia’s diplomatic autonomy from the Carolingians, establishing closer ties with Byzantium, and inviting missionaries Cyril and Methodius (in 863) to strengthen Moravian cultural and religious independence.

Solidification of Liudolfing Power in Saxony

• Saxon nobility under the leadership of the Liudolfing dynasty, notably Liudolf (d. 866), consolidated its regional influence, with significant territorial expansions and ecclesiastical foundations, reinforcing its dominance and prestige.

Stability and Governance in East Francia

• Under the steady governance of Louis the German, East Francia, including Bavaria, Thuringia, and Saxony, remained politically stable, strengthening frontier territories and enhancing administrative integration.

Economic and Technological Developments

Continued Regional Economic Prosperity

• Trade networks across Moravia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Thuringia flourished, supporting commerce in metals, agricultural produce, textiles, and luxury items, fostering sustained economic growth and urban prosperity.

Development of Infrastructure and Defense

• Continued improvements in fortifications, roads, and administrative infrastructure enhanced regional security, facilitating more efficient economic activity and military readiness along Carolingian frontier zones.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Moravian Cultural and Religious Independence

• Rastislav’s invitation of Byzantine missionaries Cyril and Methodius initiated significant cultural and religious developments, notably the introduction of the Slavic (Glagolitic) alphabet, fostering Moravia’s unique cultural identity.

Carolingian-Saxon Cultural Integration

• Saxony’s integration into Carolingian culture deepened through ecclesiastical patronage, monastery foundations, and adoption of Frankish administrative practices, reinforcing the cultural identity of the Saxon aristocracy.

Settlement and Urban Development

Growth of Moravian Urban Centers

• Major Moravian settlements experienced continued expansion, becoming prominent political and cultural hubs, pivotal in the administrative and religious life of Great Moravia.

Stability in Saxon, Bavarian, and Thuringian Towns

• Carolingian governance maintained stable urban growth in Saxony, Bavaria, and Thuringia, supported by robust trade and administrative efficiency, laying the groundwork for future medieval urban centers.

Social and Religious Developments

Christianization and Ecclesiastical Consolidation

• Christian missionary activities intensified across Moravia and Saxony, notably through the influence of Cyril and Methodius in Great Moravia, laying important ecclesiastical foundations and reinforcing religious integration.

Strengthened Dynastic Structures

• The increasing prominence of powerful dynasties, notably the Liudolfings in Saxony and Mojmirid rulers in Moravia, further reinforced hierarchical social structures, shaping regional political and social developments significantly.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era 856–867 CE was pivotal in solidifying political autonomy in Great Moravia under Rastislav and strengthening the Saxon Liudolfing dynasty, profoundly shaping East Central Europe's medieval trajectory. These developments, complemented by stable Carolingian frontier governance under Louis the German, laid lasting political, cultural, and economic foundations, significantly influencing the historical landscape of East Central Europe for generations.

Prince Rostislav of Moravia, who had succeeded Mojmír in 846, has consolidated the country and defended it successfully.

His relations with the East Frankish empire (since 843 under Louis the German) are determined by political considerations and by the advance of Christianity into the Slavic areas.

The bishoprics of Regensburg, Passau, and Salzburg compete in trying to convert the central European Slavs but achieved only limited success.

The archbishop of Salzburg had consecrated a church at Nitra about 828, and in 845 Regensburg had baptized fourteen chieftains from Bohemia.

Mojmír's Moravia apparently had had more frequent contacts with Passau than with Salzburg. (Archaeological discoveries in the twentieth century indicated that missionaries made noticeable progress before 860; stone churches were built as places of Christian worship at Mikulcice and elsewhere.)

As Moravian expansion is opposed by both the Frankish Kingdom and Bulgaria, Rostislav seeks an alliance with Constantinople.

Dissatisfied with the Latin-speaking Frankish clergy, who are spreading the influence of Eastern Francia, he asks Emperor Michael for Slavic-speaking preachers.

Devín Castle, a Slavic castle founded in the eighth century, has played a crucial role during frequent wars between Great Moravia and the Franks.

The claims that Devín or neighboring Bratislava was the center of Samo's Empire cannot be proven.

The ancient name of the castle (Dowina, from the Slavic/Slovak word deva for girl) is mentioned for the first time in written resources in 864, when Louis the German successfully besieges Prince Rastislav in the "castle of Dowina".

Louis forces Rastislav to acknowledge the supremacy of Eastern Frankish Realm over his kingdom.

Constantine and Methodius, to facilitate the task of preaching in the vernacular and translating the Bible into the unwritten Slavic language, invent a script, initially known as Glagolitic, using the phonetic peculiarities of the Slavic tongue.

German leaders, however, want to enforce the use of the Latin liturgy among the Slavs, and the brothers are called to Rome to defend themselves.

After some two and a half years among the Moravians, the two brothers journey to Rome to ask for papal support for their work and their use of the Slavic language.

Constantine enters a convent in Rome, taking the name of Cyril; he will die in 869.

The new alphabet, attributed to Cyril but probably the work of his followers, will subsequently be revised to employ characters resembling those of the Greek to become the Cyrillic alphabet used in modern Slavic languages.

East Central Europe (868–879 CE): Moravian Cultural Flourishing, Carolingian-Slavic Conflict, and Saxon Dynastic Consolidation

Between 868 and 879 CE, East Central Europe—comprising modern-day Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary, and eastern portions of Germany and Austria east of 10°E and north of a line from approximately 48.2°N at 10°E to the Austro-Slovenian border near 46.7°N, 15.4°E—witnessed a dynamic interplay of cultural innovation, political realignment, and military tensions. Great Moravia under Rastislav and later his nephew Svatopluk I reached new cultural and political heights. Concurrently, tensions between Carolingian East Francia and Slavic principalities intensified, while Saxon noble families, notably the Liudolfing dynasty, continued to solidify their power, setting the stage for future imperial ascendancy.

Political and Military Developments

Great Moravia: From Rastislav to Svatopluk

• After the deposition of Rastislav by his nephew Svatopluk I in 870 CE, Great Moravia reached its political apex, effectively resisting Carolingian influence and expanding its territories through strategic military campaigns and diplomatic alliances.

Conflict and Accommodation with Carolingian East Francia

• Conflicts between Moravian and East Frankish forces intensified, highlighted by significant military engagements and shifting alliances. The complex diplomatic interplay resulted in temporary truces and territorial adjustments, reshaping the regional balance of power.

Consolidation of Liudolfing Saxony

• In Saxony, the Liudolfing dynasty, led by Otto the Illustrious (d. 912), continued consolidating power, enhancing territorial governance, establishing dynastic prestige, and laying the groundwork for their later imperial significance.

Economic and Technological Developments

Flourishing Trade and Regional Prosperity

• Trade networks connecting Moravia, Saxony, Bavaria, and Thuringia remained vibrant, facilitating extensive commerce in metals, textiles, livestock, and luxury goods, further promoting regional economic stability and growth.

Advances in Fortification and Infrastructure

• Increased regional tensions led to enhanced investment in fortifications, roads, and administrative infrastructure, significantly improving defensive capabilities and economic integration across Moravian, Saxon, and Carolingian territories.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Moravian Cultural Renaissance

• Great Moravia flourished culturally, notably through the missionary activities of Cyril and Methodius, who further promoted the Glagolitic script and Slavic liturgy, deeply embedding Moravia’s distinct Slavic cultural and religious identity.

Saxon Cultural Integration and Carolingian Influence

• The Liudolfing dynasty reinforced Saxon cultural integration into the Carolingian sphere through ecclesiastical foundations, artistic patronage, and adoption of Frankish administrative customs, solidifying Saxony’s prominence within East Francia.

Settlement and Urban Development

Expansion of Moravian Political and Ecclesiastical Centers

• Major Moravian urban centers, such as Mikulčice and Nitra, expanded significantly, serving as key political, administrative, cultural, and religious hubs for Great Moravia’s growing influence.

Stable Growth in Saxon and Bavarian Towns

• Urban settlements in Saxony and Bavaria remained stable, experiencing growth driven by strong economic networks, effective administration, and continued integration into East Francia’s political framework.

Social and Religious Developments

Strengthened Christian Identity in Moravia

• Cyril and Methodius’s missions deepened Christianity’s roots across Moravia, fostering a distinctly Slavic Christian tradition and strengthening ecclesiastical institutions, profoundly shaping Moravia’s social and religious fabric.

Dynastic Power and Social Structure Consolidation

• The continued ascendancy of the Liudolfing dynasty in Saxony and the Mojmirid rulers in Moravia reinforced hierarchical social structures, forming clear patterns of medieval governance and aristocratic power that endured for centuries.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period 868–879 CE proved transformative for East Central Europe, marked by the cultural and political ascendancy of Great Moravia under Rastislav and Svatopluk, escalating tensions with Carolingian East Francia, and the solidification of Saxon Liudolfing dynastic power. These developments significantly shaped regional identities, political structures, and cultural traditions, profoundly influencing the historical trajectory of East Central Europe through the ensuing medieval era.