Robert Peel
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
Years: 1788 - 1850
Sir Robert Peel, 2nd Baronet (5 February 1788 – 2 July 1850) was a British Conservative statesman who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 10 December 1834 to 8 April 1835, and again from 30 August 1841 to 29 June 1846.
While Home Secretary, Peel helped create the modern concept of the police force, leading to officers being known as "bobbies" (in England) and "Peelers" (in Northern Ireland).
While Prime Minister after 1841, Peel repealed the Corn Laws and issued the Tamworth Manifesto (1834), leading to the formation of the Conservative Party out of the shattered Tory Party.
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The cabinet had proposed Liverpool as his successor with Lord Castlereagh as leader in the Commons, but after an adverse vote in the Lower House, they subsequently give both their resignations.
The Prince Regent, however, finds it impossible to form a different coalition and confirms Liverpool as prime minister on June 8.
Liverpool's government contains some of the future great leaders of Britain, such as Lord Castlereagh, George Canning, the Duke of Wellington, Robert Peel, and William Huskisson.
Liverpool is considered a skilled politician, and holds together the liberal and reactionary wings of the Tory party, with which his successors, Canning, Goderich and Wellington, will have great difficulty..
Robert Peel, as Chief Secretary in Dublin in 1813, had proposed the setting up of a specialist police force, later called "Peelers".
The Royal Irish Constabulary is founded under Peel in 1814.
Born in Bury, Lancashire, England, to the industrialist and Member of Parliament Sir Robert Peel, 1st Baronet, one of the richest textile manufacturers of the early Industrial Revolution, young Robert had been educated first at Hipperholme Grammar School, then at Harrow School and finally Christ Church, Oxford, where he had taken took a double first in classics and mathematics.
He is also believed to have attended Bury Grammar School.
While living in Tamworth, he is credited with the development of the Tamworth Pig by breeding Irish stock with some local Tamworth pigs.
Groomed for statesmanship by his father, Peel had entered politics in 1809 at the young age of twenty-one as a Tory MP for the Irish rotten borough of Cashel, Tipperary.
With a scant twenty-four electors on the rolls, he had won election unopposed.
His sponsor for the election (besides his father) had been the Chief Secretary for Ireland, Sir Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington, with whom Peel's political career is to be entwined for the next twenty-five years.
Peel had made his maiden speech at the start of the 1810 session, when he was chosen by the Prime Minister, Spencer Perceval, to second the reply to the king's speech.
His speech was a sensation, famously described by the Speaker, Charles Abbot, as "the best first speech since that of William Pitt." (Gash, Norman (1961). Mr. Secretary Peel: The Life of Sir Robert Peel to 1830. New York: Longmans.)
to better Irish Catholics, such as: electoral reform, reform of the Church of Ireland, tenants' rights, and economic development.
Beginning at a meeting of thirteen people at a bookseller's house, on Capel Street in Dublin, this is the latest in a series of similar associations formed over the previous ten years or so; none of these had prospered.
Like the other associations, this new association is composed mainly of the middle-class elite: the annual subscription amounting to a guinea, an amount equivalent to what an average farmer pays for six months' rent.
The Black Act (9 Geo. 1 c. 22), an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain, had been passed in 1723 in response to a series of raids by two groups of poachers, known as the Blacks.
Arising in the aftermath of the South Sea Bubble's collapse and the ensuing economic downturn, the Blacks had gained their name from their habit of blacking their faces when undertaking poaching raids.
Their activities had quickly led to the introduction of the Black Act to Parliament on April 26, 1723; it had come into force on May 27.
The Act had introduced the death penalty for over fifty criminal offenses, including being found in a forest while disguised.
Efforts to repeal it had started in 1810, with comments by William Grant as part of a wider debate on penal reform; a formal recommendation for its repeal took almost a decade, with the publication of the Report on Criminal Laws in 1819 marking the first "official" suggestion that the law be removed from the statute books.
Following the publication of the Report, Sir James Mackintosh introduced a law reform bill that would have repealed the Act, but although it passed through the House of Commons successfully it was strongly opposed in the Lords.
In early 1823 he had submitted a memo to the House of Commons, again suggesting the repeal of the Act, and a few months later Robert Peel had introduced a bill that repeals the entirety of the Black Act except for the provisions that criminalize setting fire to houses and shooting a person.
This had passed, and comes into effect on July 8, 1823.
In particular, Fry is appalled at the conditions in the women's section of Newgate Prison.
This act, which had been introduced and supported by Peel, introduces regular visits to prisoners by chaplains.
It provides for the payment of jailers, who until now have been paid out of fees that the prisoners themselves are required to pay.
It prohibits the use of irons and manacles
It also requires the installation of female wardens to guard female prisoners.
The act will be largely ineffective, because there are no inspectors to make sure that it is being followed.
The Prisons Act 1835 will offer a remedy by providing for the appointment of five paid prison inspectors.
Robert Peel had occupied a series of relatively minor positions in the Tory governments between 1814 and 1824: Undersecretary for War, Chief Secretary for Ireland, and, in 1819, chairman of the Bullion Committee (charged with stabilizing British finances after the end of the Napoleonic Wars).
He had also changed constituency twice: first picking up another constituency, Chippenham, then becoming MP for Oxford University in 1817.
Peel is considered one of the rising stars of the Tory party, first entering the cabinet in 1822 as Home Secretary.
In this capacity, he has introduces a number of important reforms of British criminal law, reducing the number of crimes punishable by death, and simplifying it by repealing a large number of criminal statutes and consolidating their provisions into what are known as Peel's Acts.
He reforms the jail system, introducing payment for jailers and education for the inmates.
He had resigned as Home Secretary after the Prime Minister, Lord Liverpool, became incapacitated in April 1827 and was replaced by George Canning.
Canning favors Catholic Emancipation, while Peel has been one of its most outspoken opponents (earning the nickname "Orange Peel").
George Canning himself dies less than four months later, and Frederick John Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich, becomes Prime Minister on August 31, 1827.
Northwest Europe (1828–1839): Political Reform, Social Movements, and Industrial Expansion
Political Liberalization and Parliamentary Reform
The years 1828 to 1839 witnessed significant political transformation in Britain, marked by gradual liberalization and major parliamentary reforms. Early reforms included securing civil rights for religious dissenters in 1828, signaling broader social liberalization. Most notably, under the revived and morally energized Whig Party, led by figures such as Lord Grey (Prime Minister 1830–1834), the Great Reform Act of 1832 became a landmark measure. This Act abolished corrupt "rotten" and "pocket" boroughs—where parliamentary seats were controlled by powerful families—and reallocated representation to the burgeoning industrial cities, modestly broadening the electorate.
Though the aristocracy continued to dominate high society, the government, Army, and Royal Navy, these reforms established critical foundations for modern parliamentary democracy, shifting political influence towards urban industrial centers and marking a significant turning point in British political history.
Catholic Emancipation and Ireland
Long-standing tensions in Ireland culminated in significant legislative change through the Roman Catholic Relief Act of 1829, granting Catholics the right to sit in Parliament and public offices. This concession fulfilled the unfulfilled promise of the 1800 Act of Union—initially blocked by King George III—and was secured through tireless campaigning by Irish leader Daniel O'Connell. Nevertheless, substantial grievances and unrest persisted, laying groundwork for future nationalist movements.
The Abolition of Slavery
The Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 was a landmark humanitarian reform, ending slavery throughout the British Empire. Although the British government controversially compensated plantation owners—predominantly wealthy residents of England—with £20 million, the Act represented a profound moral turning point, especially impacting the Caribbean sugar islands, where enslaved populations gained freedom, albeit under transitional "apprenticeship" systems.
The Chartist Movement and Working-Class Activism
The limited scope of the 1832 Reform Act, which notably excluded the working class from voting rights, ignited the Chartist Movement. In 1838, activists issued the People's Charter, demanding universal male suffrage, secret ballots, equal-sized electoral districts, annual parliaments, payment for Members of Parliament, and the abolition of property qualifications. Although viewed with suspicion by elites who saw Chartism as a pathological and radical threat, historians later recognized it as both a continuation of earlier anti-corruption struggles and a significant advance toward democracy in an industrialized society.
Railway Expansion and Industrial Innovation
Britain’s industrial might was significantly enhanced by the rapid expansion of railway technology during this period. The opening of the pioneering Liverpool and Manchester Railway (1830), employing George Stephenson’s innovative locomotive, the Rocket, dramatically improved transportation efficiency, accelerating industrial production and urban growth. Crucial to this expansion were robust rolled wrought-iron rails developed by John Birkinshaw in 1820. Stephenson’s further improvement with reliable lapped joints greatly enhanced rail stability, facilitating the widespread and safe adoption of railways and setting international standards.
The Postal Reform Movement
Britain’s postal system in the 1830s, crucial for an industrializing economy, was notoriously mismanaged—slow, expensive, wasteful, and corrupt. Postal rates were complex, determined by distance and letter sheets; fraud was widespread, and letters were typically paid for by recipients rather than senders. At least 12.5% of British mail traveled free under the personal frank of aristocrats, dignitaries, and members of Parliament. Official censorship and political espionage further undermined public trust.
Anecdotally inspired by observing a poor woman unable to afford to redeem a letter from her fiancé, reformer Rowland Hill campaigned vigorously for reform, highlighting flaws such as complex logging of letters and frequent abuses of the payment-on-receipt system. His efforts, supported by free-trade advocates Richard Cobden and John Ramsey McCulloch—who argued in 1833 that rapid, safe, and affordable postal delivery was essential for commerce—set the stage for the postal system’s radical transformation.
Cultural Revival: Gothic and Rococo Styles
Interior design during the 1830s saw a significant revival of Gothic and Rococo styles, driven by leading interior decorators who reintroduced these sophisticated and decorative forms into fashionable homes. The revival reflected broader cultural trends emphasizing historical romanticism, ornamentation, and the elegant tastes emerging at the dawn of the Victorian era.
Regency to Victorian Transition: Beau Brummell and Social Refinement
The flamboyant era epitomized by Regency dandy Beau Brummell, whose meticulous fashion sense once set standards across Europe, ended decisively with his death in impoverished exile in 1830. British society transitioned toward Victorian standards of modesty, sobriety, and moral propriety, redefining cultural ideals and social conduct.
Romanticism and Opium in Literary Circles
The enduring legacy of Romanticism continued in British literary culture, with late Romantic poets Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and John Keats influencing Victorian literary traditions. Opium experimentation persisted recreationally within English literary circles, reflecting contemporary attitudes toward narcotics, though growing awareness of addiction would soon reshape societal perceptions.
Gender Inequality and Social Realities
Despite social reforms, gender inequalities persisted starkly. Women sometimes resorted to disguising themselves in male clothing to secure better-paying employment, illustrating persistent economic disparities and rigid gender divisions in industrial Britain.
Financial Stability and Insurance Advances
Britain’s financial infrastructure matured significantly, bolstered by actuarial innovations from organizations such as the Society for Equitable Assurances. Life insurance became mainstream, securing middle-class financial stability and underpinning broader public trust in investment and financial systems.
British Diplomacy and Liberal Interventions
Britain’s diplomatic approach during this period, guided by Prime Ministers including Lord Goderich, the Duke of Wellington, Lord Grey, Lord Melbourne, and Sir Robert Peel, promoted cautious liberalism abroad. Britain defended constitutional governance in Portugal (1826), recognized Latin American independence (1824), and supported Greek independence against the Ottoman Empire (1827). A general avoidance of major conflicts lasted until the Crimean War (1853–56).
Scandinavia: Continued Stability and National Development
Scandinavian states remained relatively stable, with Norway increasingly developing distinct national identities and administrative structures within its union with Sweden. Denmark, having adapted to territorial reductions, continued moderate liberal and economic reforms, positioning itself as stable yet peripheral within European geopolitics.
Between 1828 and 1839, Northwest Europe experienced transformative political, economic, and social reforms. Britain’s Whig-led parliamentary reforms, abolition of slavery, and emergence of Chartism reflected a fundamental shift toward liberalization and democracy. Rapid industrial growth, particularly through railway expansion and emerging financial stability, reinforced Britain’s global dominance, while cultural shifts marked the transition toward Victorian morality and social refinement. These developments collectively laid the foundations for Britain’s ongoing ascendancy throughout the Victorian era.
Britain, still recovering from the fallout from the Napoleonic wars, is in the middle of a class war involving the Corn Laws, and a reform movement.
British Prime Minister John Robinson, Lord Goderich, had been an able minister but when it comes to leading he is unsure and the government cannot be run effectively as a number of Tory MPs have stepped in over the past five months to become the unofficial Prime Minister in an effort to help Goderich run the country.
It is reported that when Goderich resigned to George IV, he burst into tears and George IV had to lend Goderich a handkerchief, as he didn't have one.
The venerated Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, has, along with Sir Robert Peel, become one of the rising stars of Britain’s Tory party.
He replaces Goderich as Prime Minister in January 1828.
William Lamb, Whig MP for Leominster, becomes second Viscount Melbourne upon the death of his father in 1828 and moves to the House of Lords.
Wellington, as Prime Minister, and Peel, as Home Secretary, although opposed to Catholic emancipation, see that denying O'Connell his seat would cause outrage and could lead to another rebellion or uprising.
Peel and Wellington manage to convince George IV that Catholic emancipation and the right of Catholics and Presbyterians and members of all Christian faiths other than the established Church of Ireland to sit in Parliament needs to be passed.
Parliament, in response to popular Irish agitation led by O’Connell, repeals the Test Acts in 1828, removing most of the Nonconformists’ civil disabilities.
