In foreign policy Elizabeth plays against each other the major powers of France and Spain, as well as the papacy and Scotland.

These are all Catholic and each want to end Protestantism in England.

Elizabeth is cautious in foreign affairs and only halfheartedly supports a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France and Ireland.

She risks war with Spain by supporting the "Sea Dogs," such as Walter Raleigh, John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake, who prey on the Spanish merchant ships carrying gold and silver from the New World.

The major war comes with Spain, 1585–1603.

When Spain tries to invade and conquer England it is a fiasco, and the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 associates Elizabeth's name forever with what is popularly viewed as one of the greatest victories in English history.

Her enemies fail to combine and Elizabeth's foreign policy successfully navigates all the dangers.

Northwest Europe (1576–1587 CE): Religious Conflicts, Maritime Triumphs, and Cultural Vitality

England: Catholic Threats and Maritime Rivalries

The latter years of Queen Elizabeth I's reign saw escalating tensions due to Catholic conspiracies and external threats. Elizabeth’s Protestant regime faced the persistent threat of plots supported by Catholic monarchies, notably Spain. The exposure and execution of Mary, Queen of Scots in 1587 for her involvement in the Babington Plot marked a significant climax, solidifying Elizabeth’s Protestant rule but severely intensifying conflict with Catholic Europe, particularly Spain.

The period also witnessed growing maritime confrontations, led notably by Sir Francis Drake, whose circumnavigation of the globe (1577–1580) and aggressive raids against Spanish territories established England as an emerging naval power and competitor in global exploration and trade.

Gaol fever, or "jail fever," believed to have been typhus, became notorious during this period. Common in English prisons, it occurred frequently when prisoners were crowded into filthy, dark cells where lice thrived. Following the assizes held at Oxford in 1577, later called the Black Assize, over three hundred people died from gaol fever, including Sir Robert Bell, Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer. Another notable outbreak was the Black Assize of Exeter in 1586.

Scotland: Regency Struggles and Protestant Consolidation

In Scotland, the minority of James VI continued under turbulent regencies, notably those of the Earl of Morton and later Esmé Stewart, Duke of Lennox. Political intrigue and religious factionalism dominated James’s early reign, but Protestantism remained ascendant. The Kirk maintained its strong Calvinist orientation, reinforcing its influence on Scottish society and governance.

Ireland: Gaelic Resistance and English Plantation

English expansion and plantation policies intensified in Ireland, sparking fierce resistance among Gaelic lords. Revolts such as the Second Desmond Rebellion (1579–1583) led by Gerald Fitzgerald, Earl of Desmond, were brutally suppressed, resulting in widespread land confiscations and increased English colonization, particularly in Munster. These actions deepened English administrative control but exacerbated local resentment and resistance.

Scandinavia: Stability under Lutheranism and Economic Prosperity

In Denmark-Norway, King Frederick II continued to foster economic stability and centralized authority. His reign, marked by peace and the prosperous Baltic trade, bolstered Denmark's economic foundation and solidified Lutheran ecclesiastical structures. Iceland remained firmly integrated within the Danish administrative and Lutheran religious framework.

Cultural and Intellectual Flourishing

The Elizabethan cultural renaissance continued to flourish, further enriching literary, artistic, and scholarly pursuits. This era saw significant works by dramatists such as Christopher Marlowe, whose plays contributed to the burgeoning English theatrical tradition. Intellectual endeavors were reinforced by the establishment of institutions promoting humanist learning and scholarship.

Maritime Exploration and Naval Ambitions

Maritime expansion characterized this period with increased English voyages that expanded commerce and geopolitical influence. Naval commanders like Sir Walter Raleigh established initial colonial efforts, notably at Roanoke (1585), marking the beginnings of England’s imperial ambitions despite initial failures. These maritime ventures further intensified rivalry with Spain, setting the stage for future conflicts.

Legacy of the Era

By 1587 CE, Northwest Europe had experienced significant political and religious confrontations, notably marked by the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots. Maritime exploration and colonial ambitions expanded dramatically, reinforcing England’s naval power and commercial reach. Cultural achievements flourished, underpinning a vibrant era whose legacies would profoundly shape subsequent historical developments.

Walter Raleigh, or Ralegh, the son of a Devonshire gentleman and the half-brother of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, had as a teenager in in 1569 fought on the Huguenot side in the Wars of Religion in France, and he is known in 1572 to have been at Oriel College, Oxford, and at the Middle Temple law college in 1575.

He had fought against the Irish rebels in Munster in 1580, and his outspoken criticism of the way English policy had been being implemented in Ireland had brought him to the attention of Queen Elizabeth.

He had become the monarch's favorite by 1582, and he began to acquire lucrative monopolies, properties, and influential positions.

His Irish service has been rewarded by vast estates in Munster.

The queen had in1583 secured him a lease of part of Durham House in the Strand, London, where he had in this year been granted a monopoly of wine licenses.

He receives from Elizabeth a charter for the colonization of Virginia, specifying that Raleigh has ten years in which to establish a settlement in North America or lose his colonization rights.

Raleigh and Elizabeth intend that the venture should both provide New World riches, and a privateering base from which to steal from the treasure fleets of Spain, with whom the English are at perennial war.

With this in mind, an expedition is sent in 1584 to explore the eastern coast of North America for an appropriate location.

Walter Raleigh’s initial North American expedition is led by Phillip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe, who choose the Outer Banks of modern North Carolina as an ideal location from which to raid the Spanish and proceed to make contact with the natives.

They return to England with a report of their find: samples of the local flora and fauna, and two natives: Manteo and Wanchese.

A colonizing expedition composed solely of men, many of them veteran soldiers who had fought to establish English rule in Ireland, is sent to establish Raleigh’s colony in the spring of 1585.

The leader of the settlement effort, Sir Richard Grenville, is assigned to further explore the area, establish the colony, and return to England with news of the venture's success.

Upon arrival at the Outer Banks, the lead ship strikes a shoal and floods, ruining most of the colony's food stores.

After the initial exploration of the mainland coast and native towns here, a silver cup is noticed to be missing; the chief in the last native town visited is burned to death in retaliation.

Despite a lack of food and this rocky start to relations with a potential neighbor, Grenville decides to leave Ralph Lane and approximately seventy-five men to establish the English colony at the north end of Roanoke Island, promising to return in April 1586 with more men and fresh supplies.

Lane explores Albemarle Sound, at this time called the Sea of Rawnocke (Roanoke Sea).

Relations with the neighboring tribe have degraded to such a degree by April 1586 that they attack an expedition led by Lane to explore the Roanoke River.

His response is to attack the natives in their capital, where he kills their weroance, Wingina.

April passes, and there is no sign of Grenville's relief fleet.

Drake, the first European visitor to the colony since Raleigh’s departure, arrives in June on his way back from destroying the Spanish fort of St. Elena and offers to take the bedraggled colonists back to England; they accept.

Grenville and the surplus arrive shortly after Drake's fleet departs.

Finding the colony abandoned, Grenville decides to return to England with the bulk of his force, leaving behind fifteen men to maintain both an English presence and Raleigh's claim to Virginia.

Raleigh dispatches another group of colonists in 1587.

John White, an artist and friend of Raleigh's who had accompanied the previous expeditions to Roanoke, leads ninety-one men, seventeen women, and nine children, tasked with picking up the fifteen men left at Roanoke and settling farther north, in the Chesapeake Bay area.

The Roanoke settlement is reestablished after forty of the colony's men had already been shipped to Roanoke Island to search for the fifteen men stationed there, but of the men left the year before, only the bones of a single man are found.

The one local tribe still friendly towards the English, the Croatans on present-day Hatteras Island, report that the men had been attacked, and the nine survivors had taken their boat and sailed up the coast.

The settlers land on July 22, 1587 on Roanoke Island.

Governor White's daughter delivers the first English child in the Americas: Virginia Dare, born on August 18.

White had reestablished relations with the neighboring Croatans before her birth, and had tried to reestablish relations with the tribes that Ralph Lane had attacked a year previously, but the aggrieved tribes had refused to meet with the new colonists.

George Howe is killed shortly thereafter by natives as he crabs alone in Albemarle Sound.

The colonists, knowing what had happened during Ralph Lane's tenure in the area and fearing for their lives, persuade White to return to England to explain the colony's situation and ask for help.

There are approximately one hundred and seventeen colonists—one hundred and fifteen men and women who had made the trans-Atlantic passage and two newborn babies, including Virginia Dare—when White returns to England, leaving them with a pinnace and several small ships for exploration of the coast or removal of the colony to the mainland.

Ships leaving the Roanoke Colony as late as White's does are in danger from the Atlantic seas: White's vessel barely makes it back to England.

Plans for a relief fleet are put off at first by the captains' refusal to sail back during the winter.

Northwest Europe (1588–1599 CE): Defeating the Armada, Continued Strife, and Flourishing Culture

England: Triumph over the Spanish Armada

The defining event of this era was the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, a pivotal naval engagement that affirmed England's growing maritime dominance. Commanded by leaders such as Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham (Lord Howard of Effingham) and Sir Francis Drake, the English fleet utilized strategic ingenuity, superior maneuverability, and adverse weather conditions (famously termed the "Protestant Wind") to thwart Spain’s invasion attempt. This victory boosted national pride, secured Protestantism in England, and marked the beginning of Spanish naval decline.

Queen Elizabeth I continued to face internal and external threats despite the Armada victory. Persistent Catholic plots remained a concern, and Elizabeth’s government responded with increased vigilance and repression. Nonetheless, Elizabeth maintained her delicate political balance, navigating religious and political divisions effectively.

Plague had remained present in England since the Black Death of the fourteenth century, occasionally transmitted from rodents to humans with disastrous consequences. The plague, erupting periodically throughout the sixteenth century, notably struck Newcastle in 1589, killing 1,727 residents by January 1590. From 1590 to 1592, Plymouth and Devon also suffered outbreaks, with significant fatalities in towns such as Totnes and Tiverton. The disease spread through the English countryside, eventually reaching London in the summer of 1592.

Scotland: Political Stability and Monarchical Authority

In Scotland, James VI consolidated his authority and began to actively govern, gradually reducing factional strife. His effective political maneuvering laid the foundations for greater stability, though tensions between the monarchy and the Kirk continued. James VI's writings, notably Basilikon Doron (1599), outlined his views on kingship, emphasizing the divine right of monarchs, and reflected his ambition to succeed Elizabeth I in England.

Ireland: Tyrone’s Rebellion

Ireland saw heightened resistance against English rule through Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, who launched Tyrone’s Rebellion (also known as the Nine Years' War) beginning in 1594. Tyrone united various Gaelic lords in a widespread and formidable revolt, successfully employing guerrilla tactics that initially challenged English military strength. This conflict became a significant drain on English resources, compelling Elizabeth to dispatch substantial military forces.

Scandinavia: Economic Stability and Lutheran Orthodoxy

Denmark-Norway under King Christian IV from 1588 experienced ongoing stability, economic prosperity, and cultural patronage. Christian IV’s reign, though initially overseen by a regency until he came of age in 1596, eventually became noted for promoting trade, enhancing Copenhagen's infrastructure, and reinforcing Lutheran orthodoxy.

Cultural Expansion and Literary Achievements

Elizabethan England continued to enjoy remarkable cultural and literary vitality. This era witnessed the flowering of William Shakespeare’s dramatic career, producing early masterpieces such as Romeo and Juliet (1595), A Midsummer Night’s Dream (1595–1596), and The Merchant of Venice (1596–1598). Shakespeare’s plays, performed at the Globe Theatre (opened in 1599), highlighted the depth and diversity of English culture and drama.

Maritime Expansion and Imperial Ambitions

English maritime expansion intensified, with notable voyages including expeditions by explorers such as Sir Francis Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh. Although Raleigh’s initial Roanoke Colony had failed, efforts to establish English colonies continued, paving the way for future colonial enterprises.

Legacy of the Era

By 1599 CE, Northwest Europe had witnessed decisive victories, ongoing conflicts, and significant cultural advancements. England emerged from the Armada’s defeat with enhanced national pride and maritime prestige, while Scotland moved towards greater internal stability. Ireland’s ongoing rebellion posed severe challenges to English rule, highlighting enduring tensions. Culturally, the period marked the height of Elizabethan literary and dramatic achievements, establishing a rich legacy for subsequent generations.