The Second French Invasion of Portugal (March–May 1809) and Wellington’s Counteroffensive

In March 1809, Marshal Nicolas Soult led a renewed French invasion of Portugal, advancing from Galicia in the north. This marked Napoleon’s second attempt to subjugate Portugal, following the failed occupation of 1807–1808.

The French Advance – Soult Captures Porto

• Soult’s army crossed into Portugal from Galicia, quickly occupying Chaves.
• The French then advanced toward Porto, Portugal’s second-largest city.
• On March 29, 1809, Soult captured Porto, forcing a chaotic Portuguese retreat across the Douro River.

Wellington Returns – The British-Portuguese Counteroffensive

• In April 1809, Sir Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington) arrived in Portugal to take full command of the British-Portuguese forces.
• Recognizing that Soult’s army was vulnerable, Wellington launched a rapid counteroffensive, forcing the French to retreat northward.
• By May 12, 1809, Wellington executed a brilliant crossing of the Douro River, retaking Porto and sending Soult into full retreat.
• The French, cut off from their supply lines, abandoned much of their artillery and baggage as they fled back into Galicia.

Victory at Talavera and Wellington’s Rise (July 27–28, 1809)

• After driving Soult out of Portugal, Wellington turned his attention to Spanish territory, joining forces with the Spanish army.
• On July 27–28, 1809, the British and Spanish armies defeated Marshal Victor’s French forces at the Battle of Talavera in central Spain.
• Despite suffering heavy casualties, this victory marked Wellington’s first major battlefield success in Spain, solidifying his reputation as the leading Allied general in the Peninsular War.
• In recognition of his achievements, Wellesley was elevated to the rank of Duke of Wellington.

Conclusion – The French Are Driven from Portugal Again

The successful defense of Portugal in 1809 marked a turning point in the Peninsular War:

• Portugal remained secure under British and Portuguese control, despite repeated French invasions.
• The Anglo-Portuguese army was now a disciplined and effective force, ready to support the Spanish resistance.
• Wellington emerged as the dominant Allied commander, setting the stage for future victories against Napoleon’s forces in the Iberian Peninsula.

This campaign reaffirmed Portugal’s resilience and Britain’s commitment to defeating Napoleon in Iberia, leading toward the final liberation of Spain and Portugal in 1813–1814.

Portuguese Rebellion and the Liberation from French Occupation (1808–1809)

The French occupation of Portugal, imposed after Junot’s invasion in 1807, soon sparked widespread rebellion among the Portuguese population. Local provisional juntas were organized in several cities, leading to an armed resistance movement supported by the British.

The Porto Junta and the Organization of Resistance

• The junta in Porto became the leading authority among the various Portuguese resistance groups, with other local juntas pledging allegiance to it.
• With British support, the Porto junta began to assemble an army, preparing to challenge French rule.

Victory at Lourinhã and the Convention of Sintra (August 1808)

• On August 21, 1808, Portuguese and British forces decisively defeated a strong French force at Lourinhã.
• This defeat forced the French to negotiate, leading to the Convention of Sintra, signed in August 1808.
• The treaty provided for the complete evacuation of French forces under General Andoche Junot from Portugal.
• The Portuguese juntas assumed control of the government, restoring local governance in place of French rule.

Reorganizing the Portuguese Army – Beresford’s Appointment (January 1809)

• With Portugal liberated from the first French occupation, the country needed a strong military force to prevent further invasions.
• In January 1809, the prince regent João VI, still governing from Brazil, appointed British officer William Carr Beresford as marshal and commander-in-chief of the Portuguese army.
• Beresford undertook extensive military reforms, transforming the undisciplined and weakened Portuguese forces into an effective fighting force, which would later play a crucial role in defeating Napoleon’s armies in Iberia.

Conclusion – Portugal Resists French Domination

The rebellions against French rule, the victory at Lourinhã, and the intervention of British forces ensured that Portugal remained free of direct French control. However, the war was far from over, and Portugal would soon face another invasion by Napoleon’s armies in 1809, prompting further British and Portuguese military collaboration to defend the nation.

The Lines of Torres Vedras – Wellington’s Masterstroke in Portugal (1809–1810)

Anticipating a new French assault on Portugal, Sir Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, prepared a formidable defensive strategy to protect Lisbon, the key to holding Portugal. His solution was the construction of the Lines of Torres Vedras, a network of fortifications, redoubts, and blockhouses, which would halt any French advance.

The Construction of the Lines of Torres Vedras

• Work began in autumn 1809 under the direction of Sir Richard Fletcher, Wellington’s chief engineer.
• The defensive system consisted of three mutually supporting lines:
  • The first line (closest to the enemy) stretched from the Atlantic to the Tagus River, blocking all access to Lisbon from the north.
  • The second line, behind the first, served as a fallback position.
  • The third line, closer to Lisbon, was intended only for emergency defense and the evacuation of British forces if needed.
• Fortified artillery positions, ravelins, and blockhouses ensured crossfire zones, making an assault nearly impossible.

Communication and Scorched Earth Tactics

• A semaphore system connected all sectors of the defenses, allowing instant communication and rapid troop deployment.
• To weaken the French, Wellington ordered a scorched earth policy, destroying food supplies, livestock, and shelters in the area north of the lines.
• 200,000 civilians from these districts were relocated inside the defenses, depriving the French of forage and logistical support.

Strategic Importance – Exploiting French Weaknesses

Wellington understood that Napoleon’s armies could conquer Portugal only by taking Lisbon. However, due to Portugal’s geography, the only practical route to Lisbon was from the north—where the Lines of Torres Vedras blocked the way.

This strategy forced the French to rely on their own fragile supply chains, making it impossible for them to sustain a prolonged siege.

Political and Military Autonomy for Portugal

• While Wellington strengthened Portugal’s defenses, the Portuguese administration remained wary of British influence.
• Marshal William Carr Beresford, the British commander overseeing the Portuguese Army’s reorganization, faced resistance from local political leaders.
• However, Miguel de Pereira Forjaz, the Portuguese Minister of War, strongly supported Beresford, ensuring that British-Portuguese military cooperation remained intact.

Conclusion – A Defensive Masterpiece

By 1810, just as the third French invasion of Portugal was about to begin, the Lines of Torres Vedras were completed, creating one of the most formidable defensive systems in military history. This bold strategy would soon force the French into a devastating retreat, proving to be one of Wellington’s greatest achievements in the Peninsular War.

The Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo (April 26 – July 9, 1810) – Ney’s Opening Move for the Invasion of Portugal

As a prelude to the third French invasion of Portugal, Marshal Michel Ney, commanding part of Marshal André Masséna’s Army of Portugal, laid siege to Ciudad Rodrigo, a strategic Spanish fortress town near the Portuguese border. The fall of Ciudad Rodrigo was essential to securing the French supply lines before launching the main offensive against Portugal.

The French Siege (April 26 – July 9, 1810)

• The siege began on April 26, 1810, as Ney’s troops encircled the fortress.
• Ciudad Rodrigo’s Spanish garrison, commanded by General Andrés Pérez de Herrasti, had about 5,500 defenders, including regular Spanish troops and militia, supported by 153 guns.
• The French besieging force numbered around 30,000 troops, with extensive siege artillery brought in to breach the walls.
• Over the course of more than two months, the French bombarded the fortress, dug trenches, and cut off all supply routes.
• The Spanish defenders resisted fiercely, repelling multiple French assaults.

The Fall of Ciudad Rodrigo (July 9, 1810)

• After enduring weeks of continuous bombardment, the Spanish walls were breached on July 9, 1810.
• Ney’s troops stormed the town, overwhelming the exhausted Spanish defenders.
• General Herrasti surrendered, and the French entered Ciudad Rodrigo, taking control of the fortress.

Strategic Impact – Clearing the Path to Portugal

• The capture of Ciudad Rodrigo was a major French success, securing a key supply and staging area for Masséna’s invasion of Portugal.
• It opened the way for the French to advance on Almeida, another fortress on the Portuguese border, which would soon be besieged and captured in August 1810.
• However, French advances into Portugal would soon be halted by Wellington’s defensive masterpiece—the Lines of Torres Vedras.

Conclusion – A Costly but Important Victory

• While Ney’s victory at Ciudad Rodrigo was strategically valuable, it was only the beginning of the campaign.
• The Spanish resistance had been fierce, showing that the war in Spain and Portugal was far from over.
• Wellington and the Anglo-Portuguese army were already preparing to defend Lisbon, leading to the decisive battles of the 1810–1811 campaign.

Though Ciudad Rodrigo fell to the French in 1810, it would later be recaptured by Wellington in January 1812, marking another turning point in the Peninsular War.

The Third French Invasion of Portugal and the Battle of Buçaco (1810)

In 1810, Napoleon launched his third and largest invasion of Portugal, assigning Marshal André Masséna to command an army of approximately 65,000 men. This was one of the most formidable French offensives of the Peninsular War, aimed at securing Lisbon and ending British intervention in Iberia.

French Advances – The Battle of the Côa (July 24, 1810)

• As Masséna’s forces crossed into Portugal, they encountered resistance at the Côa River near Almeida.
• Robert Crauford’s Light Division, tasked with covering Almeida, engaged French forces under Marshal Ney.
• Outnumbered and overmatched, Crauford’s troops were driven back, allowing the French to tighten their siege of Almeida.
• Almeida fell on August 27, 1810, following a catastrophic magazine explosion, clearing the way for Masséna’s army to advance deeper into Portugal.

Wellington’s Defense at Buçaco (September 27, 1810)

• As the French advanced south, Wellington chose to make a stand at Bussaco (Buçaco), a formidable ridge stretching for ten miles (16 km).
• The Anglo-Portuguese army, well-entrenched on the heights, numbered around 50,000 men, with a strong defensive position.

The Battle of Buçaco – A French Disaster

• On September 27, 1810, Masséna launched a full-scale assault, believing that his veteran French troops could break Wellington’s line.
• The steep, rugged terrain and Anglo-Portuguese firepower turned the battle into a slaughter for the French.
• French casualties were heavy, with losses estimated at 4,500–5,000 men, while the Anglo-Portuguese army suffered only about 1,200 casualties.
• Despite their numerical advantage, the French failed to dislodge Wellington’s forces.

Aftermath – Masséna’s Invasion Stalls

• Though defeated at Buçaco, Masséna continued his advance, realizing that Wellington’s army would eventually have to retreat.
• Instead of forcing a direct breakthrough, he outflanked Wellington by moving toward Coimbra, forcing the British and Portuguese to withdraw.
• However, Wellington had a greater strategy in place—he had already prepared the Lines of Torres Vedras, a massive defensive network north of Lisbon, where he planned to trap and starve the invading French army.

Conclusion – A Tactical Victory for Wellington

The Battle of Buçaco proved Wellington’s defensive genius, showcasing the effectiveness of Anglo-Portuguese forces when fighting from strong positions. Though Masséna continued his invasion, the French had suffered significant losses and were walking into a trap—soon, they would reach the Lines of Torres Vedras, where the fate of the invasion would be decided.

Masséna’s Failed Siege of Torres Vedras – The French Retreat Begins (October 1810 – March 1811)

After reaching the Lines of Torres Vedras in October 1810, Marshal André Masséna’s Army of Portugal dug in near Sobral, preparing for an assault on the British and Portuguese defensive positions. However, his attempt to capture Lisbon quickly unraveled, leading to one of the most disastrous retreats of the Peninsular War.

French Stalemate at Torres Vedras (October 1810)

• Masséna's army concentrated around Sobral, preparing for a full-scale attack on the Lines of Torres Vedras.
• On October 14, a fierce skirmish between French troops and the Anglo-Portuguese defenders revealed the true strength of the defensive network.
• Realizing that the fortifications were impenetrable, Masséna hesitated to launch an all-out assault.

Instead of risking a catastrophic defeat, the French dug in and attempted to hold their position before Lisbon.

The French Army Begins to Starve

• Wellington had stripped the land north of the lines of all food, forage, and shelter through a scorched earth policy.
• The Royal Navy ensured Lisbon remained well-supplied, while the French had no access to reinforcements or provisions.
• As weeks passed, Masséna’s army began to starve, with desertion and disease taking a heavy toll.
• French supply lines were stretched too thin, and Napoleon sent no reinforcements, as he was preparing for war with Russia.

The Retreat to Santarém (Late October 1810 – March 1811)

• After a month of near-famine conditions, Masséna finally abandoned his positions before Lisbon in late October.
• He fell back to a defensive position between Santarém and Rio Maior, hoping to hold out for reinforcements or new orders from Napoleon.
• This retreat marked the beginning of the end of the third French invasion of Portugal, as the Anglo-Portuguese army prepared to go on the counteroffensive.

Conclusion – The Failure of Masséna’s Campaign

• Wellington’s strategy had worked perfectly—by forcing the French into a starving siege, he defeated Masséna without needing a pitched battle.
• The Lines of Torres Vedras had proven impenetrable, and French forces were now in full retreat.
• Over the next several months, Wellington’s army would pursue the retreating French, liberating Portugal entirely by the spring of 1811.

The failure at Torres Vedras was one of the greatest strategic defeats of Napoleon’s forces in the Peninsular War, marking the turning point in Portugal’s struggle against French occupation.

Masséna’s Maneuvers and Wellington’s Defensive Strategy at the Lines of Torres Vedras (October 1810–1811)

Following the Battle of Buçaco (September 27, 1810), Marshal André Masséna skillfully outmaneuvered Wellington, forcing the Anglo-Portuguese army to fall back to their prepared defensive positions—the Lines of Torres Vedras.

Wellington, anticipating Masséna’s advance, executed a strategic withdrawal, ensuring that his forces would be positioned behind the impenetrable network of fortifications north of Lisbon.

Wellington’s Defensive Strategy at the Lines of Torres Vedras

• Upon reaching Torres Vedras, Wellington manned the fortifications with "secondary troops", ensuring that his elite forces remained mobile.
• The garrisoning forces consisted of:
  • 25,000 Portuguese militia, trained by General Beresford.
  • 8,000 Spanish troops, reinforcing defensive positions.
  • 2,500 British marines and artillerymen, placed in key strongholds.
• Wellington kept his main field army of British and Portuguese regulars dispersed, ready to rapidly reinforce any point of the defensive lines where the French might attempt an assault.

Masséna’s Dilemma – Facing an Impenetrable Fortress

• When Masséna’s army arrived at the Lines of Torres Vedras, they were shocked by the scale and strength of the defenses.
• The fortifications stretched across the Lisbon Peninsula, blocking all routes to the Portuguese capital.
• A direct assault was impossible, and with Portuguese guerrillas and Wellington’s field army maneuvering against him, Masséna found himself in a dire situation.

The Stalemate and the French Retreat

• The French army soon suffered from a lack of supplies, as Wellington’s scorched earth tactics had left them with nothing to forage.
• Meanwhile, Lisbon remained fully supplied by the Royal Navy, ensuring that the Anglo-Portuguese defenders were well-provisioned.
• After months of starvation and attrition, Masséna was forced to retreat in early 1811, marking the failure of Napoleon’s third invasion of Portugal.

Conclusion – Wellington’s Masterful Defense

Wellington’s tactical foresight and use of defensive warfare at the Lines of Torres Vedras ensured that Lisbon remained secure and that Napoleon’s Iberian ambitions suffered a critical setback. This defensive strategy not only saved Portugal but also allowed the Allies to go on the offensive, ultimately leading to the French expulsion from the Iberian Peninsula in the coming years.

An outnumbered French force under Édouard Mortier routs and nearly destroys the Spanish, near Badajoz, Spain, at the Battle of the Gebora on February 19, 1811.

Wellington’s Counteroffensive and the Battle of Albuera (May 16, 1811)

After expelling Masséna’s French army from Portugal in March 1811, Wellington shifted to the offensive, aiming to secure the Portuguese-Spanish border and reclaim key fortresses. One of his main objectives was Badajoz, a strategic stronghold on the Spanish side of the border, which had been left under French control by Marshal Nicolas Soult.

The Siege of Badajoz (April–May 1811)

• An Anglo-Portuguese army under British Marshal William Beresford, supported by a Spanish army led by Generals Joaquín Blake and Francisco Castaños, laid siege to the French-held fortress of Badajoz.
• Badajoz was one of the most important strongholds in the region, and its recapture would give the Allies a key advantage in Spain.

Soult’s Response – A Relief Force Assembles

• Learning of the siege, Marshal Soult quickly reorganized his forces, gathering a relief army to march to Badajoz’s aid.
• Knowing that French reinforcements were on the way, Beresford made the tactical decision to lift the siege temporarily to intercept Soult’s advancing army.

The Interception – The Battle of Albuera (May 16, 1811)

• The Anglo-Portuguese and Spanish forces intercepted Soult’s army near the village of Albuera, leading to one of the fiercest battles of the Peninsular War.
• Beresford’s army, despite initial setbacks, ultimately inflicted heavy losses on Soult, forcing him to retreat back toward Andalusia.

Strategic Outcome

• Though Badajoz remained in French hands for the time being, Soult’s failure to break through ensured that French control over the region was weakening.
• The French suffered significant casualties, forcing them onto the defensive in Spain.
• Wellington and Beresford would soon return to lay siege to Badajoz again, eventually capturing it in 1812after a brutal and costly assault.

The Battle of Albuera demonstrated the growing effectiveness of the Allied forces, particularly the cooperation between British, Portuguese, and Spanish armies, setting the stage for further offensives into Spanish territory.

Masséna’s Exhausted Army Retreats to Salamanca (March 1811)

After six months of failure before the Lines of Torres Vedras, Marshal André Masséna was forced to abandon his campaign in Portugal, marking the final collapse of the third French invasion of Portugal.

By March 1811, with his army starving, demoralized, and harassed by British and Portuguese forces, Masséna withdrew from Portugal and fell back to Salamanca in Spain.

Reasons for the French Retreat

1. Starvation and Lack of Supplies

   • Wellington’s scorched earth policy left the French with no food, forage, or shelter in Portugal.
   • The French supply lines were overstretched, and Napoleon, now focused on preparations for war with Russia, sent no reinforcements.

2. Harassment by Portuguese Guerrillas

   • Portuguese militias and irregular fighters constantly attacked retreating French troops, further weakening their forces.

3. British and Portuguese Pursuit

   • As Masséna withdrew, Wellington aggressively pursued him, ensuring that the French retreat did not turn into a regrouping effort.

The French Reach Salamanca

• By March 1811, Masséna’s depleted army arrived in Salamanca, where they attempted to reorganize and regroup.
• The French retreat from Portugal marked a decisive turning point in the Peninsular War, with British and Portuguese forces now preparing to take the offensive into Spain.

Strategic Impact

• Portugal was now completely free of French occupation, ensuring that Lisbon remained a secure base for the British-led coalition.
• Masséna’s defeat severely weakened French control over Spain, as Napoleon’s forces could no longer rely on Portugal as a base for operations.
• With Wellington now on the offensive, the Peninsular War shifted in favor of the Allied forces, paving the way for further British victories in Spain.

Though Masséna avoided total destruction, his retreat to Salamanca marked the end of French ambitions in Portugal, forcing the French onto the defensive for the remainder of the Peninsular War.