António, Prior of Crato: The Last Defender of Portuguese Independence (1580)

António, Prior of Crato (1531–1595), was the illegitimate grandson of King Manuel I and a claimant to the Portuguese throne during the succession crisis of 1580. Despite his weaker claim compared to Philip II of Spain and the Duchess of Braganza, he rallied popular support against Spanish rule, presenting himself as a second John I of Portugal, echoing the Crisis of 1385.

António’s Claim to the Throne

• Son of Prince Louis (Duke of Beja) and Violante Gomes, António was illegitimate, which weakened his claim in the eyes of the Portuguese nobility.

• His main rivals were:

  • Philip II of Spain, the most powerful claimant, whose mother, Isabella of Portugal, was the eldest daughter of Manuel I.
  • Catherine, Duchess of Braganza, a legitimate granddaughter of Manuel I.

• After King Sebastian’s death at Alcácer Quibir (1578), António initially advanced his claim, but the succession was granted to Cardinal Henry, the elderly, childless uncle of Sebastian.

• Upon Henry’s death in January 1580, the Cortes assembled in Almeirim, and a five-member regency juntaassumed power, preparing to select a new king.

António’s Popular Resistance Against Spanish Rule

• With Philip II of Spain pressing his claim, António appealed to national sentiment, portraying himself as Portugal’s last hope for independence.
• He argued that Portugal faced a situation similar to the 1383–1385 Crisis, when:
  • The King of Castile had attempted to claim Portugal through blood descent.
  • John I, Master of Aviz—also an illegitimate son of a Portuguese king—successfully defended Portugal at the Battle of Aljubarrota (1385).
• However, António lacked the support of the nobility, who largely favored Philip II, believing he would preserve their privileges.
• His main supporters came from:
  • The lower clergy.
  • Peasants and artisans.
  • Those opposed to Spanish rule on nationalistic grounds.

Conclusion: The Last Hope for an Independent Portugal

Despite his historical comparisons to John I of Portugal, António, Prior of Crato, faced overwhelming opposition from the nobility and failed to prevent the Spanish succession. However, his resistance led to an armed conflict in the summer of 1580, making him the last Portuguese ruler to contest Spain’s annexation—a fight that would continue until Portugal regained independence in 1640.

The Portuguese Succession Crisis of 1580: The End of the Aviz Dynasty

With the death of King Henry of Portugal on January 30, 1580, the House of Aviz, which had ruled Portugal for 200 years, became extinct in the legitimate male line. Henry had renounced his clerical vows in hopes of marrying and producing an heir, but Pope Gregory XIII, aligned with the Habsburgs, refused to release him, preventing the continuation of the Portuguese royal line.

Henry’s brief reign (1578–1580) had been largely focused on raising ransom payments for Portuguese captives in Morocco following the disastrous Battle of Alcácer Quibir (1578). His failure to appoint a Council of Regency to determine a successor plunged Portugal into a succession crisis, as multiple claimants vied for the throne.

The Claimants to the Portuguese Throne

1. Ranuccio Farnese (1569–1622) – The Closest Heir by Feudal Custom

   • Closest genealogical heir, as the son of Maria of Portugal, the eldest daughter of Dom Duarte, Duke of Guimarães, who was the only son of Manuel I whose legitimate descendants survived.
   • As Duke of Parma’s son, he was a foreigner, only eleven years old, and unlikely to win Portuguese support.

2. Catherine, Duchess of Braganza (1540–1614) – A Strong Domestic Candidate

   • Second in line after her nephew Ranuccio, being the younger daughter of Dom Duarte.
   • Married to John I, Duke of Braganza, a descendant of King Duarte I, reinforcing her dynastic legitimacy.
   • Her son, Teodósio de Braganza, would inherit the crown, ensuring a Portuguese royal future.
   • Advantages:
     • Resided in Portugal, unlike Ranuccio.
     • Was an adult, not a child.
     • Supported by nobles who wished to keep Portugal independent.
   • Disadvantages:
     • Her gender, as Portugal had never had a generally recognized ruling queen.
     • Was the younger daughter, meaning her claim was weaker than that of her nephew, Ranuccio.

3. Philip II of Spain (1527–1598) – The Habsburg Claimant

   • Grandson of Manuel I through his mother, Isabella of Portugal, making him next in line after Ranuccio and Catherine.
   • Strongest military power, with Spanish troops ready to enforce his claim.
   • Advantages:
     • Had overwhelming military and political strength.
     • Backed by Pope Gregory XIII, the Jesuits, and pro-Spanish nobles.
   • Disadvantages:
     • Seen as a foreigner, which fueled Portuguese resistance to his rule.
     • Only claimed through a female line, unlike António.

4. António, Prior of Crato (1531–1595) – The Nationalist Challenger

   • Grandson of Manuel I in the male line, but illegitimate, as his father, Prince Louis, had not been officially married at the time of his birth.
   • Appealed to national sentiment, presenting himself as a new John I of Portugal, invoking the 1383–1385 crisis, when an illegitimate Aviz prince took the throne.
   • Supported by the lower classes, clergy, and those opposed to Spanish rule, but lacked noble backing.

The Political Struggle: Who Would Rule Portugal?

• Portugal’s nobility and clergy feared Spanish dominance, but many were reluctant to support a female ruler (Catherine) or an illegitimate one (António).
• Philip II, with Spanish military power, was the most formidable contender, despite being foreign-born.
• António of Crato attempted to rally nationalist support, but failed to secure noble backing.

By June 1580, the succession crisis erupted into open conflict, leading to the Iberian Union under Philip II and sixty years of Spanish rule (1580–1640).

Conclusion: The Fall of the Aviz Dynasty and Portugal’s Fate

With no clear and universally accepted Portuguese heir, Philip II of Spain successfully claimed the throne, leading to the Iberian Union (1580–1640). Although Portugal remained administratively separate, it was effectively under Spanish control. However, the succession crisis and foreign rule fueled long-term resentment, setting the stage for Portugal’s eventual Restoration War (1640–1668) and its return to independence under the House of Braganza.

The Spanish Invasion of Portugal and the Fall of Dom António (1580)

In June 1580, King Philip II of Spain, one of seven claimants to the Portuguese throne, launched a full-scale military invasion of Portugal. His forces, numbering around 40,000 men—including 20,000 Spanish regulars and 20,000 mercenaries—were led by the experienced Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba.

With Portugal's army decimated at the Battle of Ksar El Kebir (1578) and noble support turning toward Philip II, Dom António, Prior of Crato, was left to defend the country with an irregular army of peasants, townspeople, and freed enslaved Africans.

Background: The Devastation of Portugal’s Army at Ksar El Kebir (1578)

• The disastrous Battle of Alcácer Quibir (Ksar El Kebir) in 1578 had resulted in:
  • The death of King Sebastian I and much of Portugal’s nobility.
  • The capture of thousands of Portuguese soldiers, most of whom never returned from Moroccan captivity.
• This left Portugal militarily crippled, making it vulnerable to Spanish aggression.

Dom António’s Struggle for the Throne

• With Philip II claiming the Portuguese crown, Dom António, Prior of Crato, attempted to resist Spanish rule.
• However, the remnants of Portugal’s high clergy and nobility sided with Philip, fearing that António, as an illegitimate claimant, could not ensure stability.
• Unable to recruit professional soldiers, António was forced to assemble a makeshift army, consisting of:
  • Local peasants and townspeople, most of whom were untrained.
  • 3,000 enslaved Africans, who fought in exchange for their freedom.

Conclusion: The Weakness of Dom António’s Forces

Despite his desperate resistance, Dom António’s irregular forces stood little chance against Philip II’s well-equipped and battle-hardened Spanish army. The battle for Portugal’s independence would soon culminate in the decisive Spanish victory at the Battle of Alcântara (August 25, 1580), marking the beginning of sixty years of Spanish rule over Portugal (1580–1640) under the Iberian Union.

The Final Defeat of Dom António: The Fall of Porto and the Spanish Conquest of Portugal (1580)

Following his crushing defeat at the Battle of Alcântara (August 25, 1580), Dom António, Prior of Crato, fled northward with the remnants of the Portuguese army, hoping to reassemble his forces in Porto. However, Spanish troops under Don Sancho d’Ávila pursued him and delivered a final, devastating blow to his resistance.

The Defeat at Porto (Late 1580)

• After the fall of Lisbon, Dom António and his decimated army retreated toward Porto, one of the last remaining Portuguese strongholds.
• His intention was to regroup and launch a counteroffensive, but his forces were demoralized, fragmented, and poorly equipped.
• Spanish forces under Don Sancho d’Ávila pursued them aggressively, ensuring no time for reorganization.
• In a final decisive battle near Porto, António’s troops were completely destroyed, effectively ending his ability to resist Spanish rule.

The End of Portuguese Resistance

• By the end of 1580, nearly all of Portugal was under Spanish control, with only a few isolated areas resisting occupation.
• Philip II of Spain secured his rule over Portugal, establishing the Iberian Union (1580–1640), under which Portugal remained under Spanish control for the next 60 years.
• Dom António escaped into exile, continuing to claim the Portuguese throne from abroad, but he never regained power.

Conclusion: The Complete Spanish Takeover of Portugal

The fall of Porto marked the final collapse of Portuguese military resistance to Spanish rule in 1580. With most of the country under Spanish control, Philip II solidified his claim to the Portuguese throne, integrating Portugal into his vast empire. Though Portugal retained some autonomy, Spanish rule would remain unpopular, setting the stage for Portugal’s eventual rebellion and restoration of independence in 1640.

Lisbon having fallen to Spain, Antonio purports to rule Portugal from Terceira Island in the Azores, where he has established a government in exile recognized only in the Azores.

Antonio flees in early 1581 to France, the traditional enemy of the Habsburgs of Spain, carrying with him the Portuguese crown jewels, including many valuable diamonds.

He is well received by Catherine de Medici, who has a claim of her own to the Crown of Portugal and views him as a convenient instrument to be used against Philip.

Antonio, by promising to cede the Portuguese colony of Brazil to her and the sale of some of his jewels, secures support to fit out a fleet manned by Portuguese exiles and French and English adventurers.