António, Prior of Crato: The Last Defender…

Spain has by 1580 consolidated military and political control in the Philippines, except for ...

...Mindanao, ...

...Palawan, and ...

...the Sulu Archipelago.

The Mori family had first achieved prominence in the early sixteenth century when some vassals of the Ouchi family, then the dominant power in west Honshu and probably the most powerful warriors in all Japan, had revolted against the Ouchi's autocratic rule.

Under the leadership of Mori Motonari (1497–1571), his family, though not directly involved in the uprising, had been able to profit by the revolt, and in 1557 he had become the new overlord of west Honshu.

Motonari's grandson, Mori Terumoto, had become the major opponent of Nobunaga when the great warrior made his bid to reunify Japan.

After a two-year siege against Bessho Nagaharu, a retainer of the Mori clan, the Hideyoshi clan in 1580 captures Miki, a city in western Honshu, Japan, that had developed around a castle built by Bessho Naganori in 1468.

Nobunaga finally achieves the surrender of the fortress-monastery of Hongan-ji at Osaka, the most important political and military center of the Ikko, only through the mediation of the Imperial court in 1580; the ten-year-siege has been the longest in Japanese history.

Following the destruction of Nagashima, Nobunaga orders his men to search all of Echizen Province and kill every last man and woman of the so-called Ikko sect.

After capturing a great number of manors and temple estates, Nobunaga has established his hold on the samurai and the wealthier farmers by investing them with the newly won estates.

He thus has gained a firm political and economic basis, which he has strengthened by reducing even further the traditional influence of the Buddhist temples.

Once established in Kyoto, he had extended his protection to the Jesuit missionaries and assisted them in building a church in the capital and a seminary in Azuchi.

He does so not only because of his interest in European culture but because he regards the encouragement of Christianity as a further means of restraining the influence of the Buddhist temples.

As a nonbeliever, Nobunaga’s attitude toward Christianity is frankly political.

The Historical Record of Influenza: From Hippocrates to Modern Understanding

The symptoms of human influenza were clearly described by Hippocrates approximately 2,400 years ago, making it one of the oldest documented infectious diseases in history. However, while influenza-like illnesses have likely caused epidemics throughout human history, interpreting historical data on influenza remains difficult, as its symptoms resemble those of other respiratory diseases.

Hippocrates' Early Description of Influenza

• The Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 460–370 BCE) provided one of the earliest known clinical descriptions of an illness resembling influenza.
• His writings detail fever, coughing, body aches, and respiratory distress, symptoms characteristic of modern flu cases.
• While this suggests that influenza existed in ancient times, distinguishing it from other respiratory diseases such as pneumonia, bronchitis, or plague is challenging.

Difficulties in Interpreting Historical Influenza Epidemics

1. Symptom Overlap with Other Diseases

   • Many historical records describe outbreaks with symptoms similar to influenza, but the same descriptions could apply to:
     • Bubonic plague (Yersinia pestis) – which sometimes presents with fever and respiratory symptoms.
     • Typhus – which includes fever, muscle pain, and coughing.
     • Other coronaviruses or respiratory infections.

2. Lack of Precise Medical Terminology

   • Early medical records lacked modern diagnostic tools, making it difficult to differentiate influenza from other respiratory diseases.
   • Physicians often used broad terms like "pestilence" or "fever" to describe epidemics.

3. Epidemic Cycles and Global Spread

   • Influenza may have circulated in localized outbreaks for centuries before becoming a recognizable global pandemic disease in modern history.
   • Trade routes, migration, and military campaigns likely facilitated its spread, but historical documentation remains inconsistent.

Conclusion: Influenza as a Persistent but Elusive Disease

While influenza has likely affected human populations for millennia, its historical footprint is difficult to track with certainty due to its symptomatic similarity to other diseases. The first well-documented influenza pandemic (1580) provides a clearer historical marker, but earlier outbreaks—such as those noted by Hippocrates—suggest that influenza has been a recurring part of human history for thousands of years.