The commercial empire of the Turkic Khazars, centered in the southeastern section of modern European Russia, adopts Judaism in about 740 and continues its alliance with Constantinople against the Muslim Arabs.

The Middle East: 676–819 CE

Islamic Expansion, Cultural Integration, and Dynastic Transformations

Consolidation and Revolts under the Umayyads

Following the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) with its capital in Damascus, the region undergoes significant political and cultural transformations. Muawiyah, founder of the dynasty, cements Umayyad control through administrative reforms, military strength, and religious tolerance, particularly toward Christians. Damascus flourishes, becoming one of the great cities of the eighth century, a hub of Islamic governance, culture, and economic prosperity.

However, succession issues plague the Umayyad dynasty. The violent death of Husayn ibn Ali at the Battle of Karbala (680) creates a profound schism between Sunni and Shia Muslims, deeply influencing Islamic history. The martyrdom of Husayn solidifies Shia identity, with Karbala and the tomb of his father Ali at Najaf becoming central pilgrimage sites.

Sectarian Divisions and Ideological Movements

This era sees the rise of multiple Islamic sects, each interpreting leadership and theology distinctively. The Kharijites, initially rebels from Ali's army, promote strict doctrinal adherence and lead rebellions in Iraq and beyond, notably influencing movements such as the Azraqi Kharijites who rebel in 685. Meanwhile, the rise of the Paulicians in Armenia around 664 introduces a dualistic Christian sect influenced by Gnostic beliefs, opposing the established church and empire.

Abbasid Revolution and Cultural Renaissance

The growing dissatisfaction with Umayyad rule culminates in the Abbasid Revolution led by Abu Muslim, who captures Iraq in 747 and establishes the Abbasid Caliphate in 750 with its capital in Baghdad. The Abbasids, presenting themselves as divine-right rulers, usher in a new era of centralized administration, cultural flourishing, and intellectual expansion, significantly influenced by Persian traditions. The Abbasid caliphs, particularly under Harun ar-Rashid (786–809) and his son Al-Mamun (813–833), preside over a remarkable cultural renaissance, with Baghdad becoming a center for philosophical, scientific, and literary achievements.

Persian Influence and Cultural Integration

Under Abbasid rule, the integration of Persian administrative practices, such as the role of vizier and the bureaucratic institution of the divan, becomes foundational. Persian scholars profoundly impact Islamic sciences, literature, medicine, and philosophy, with Arabic becoming the language of administration in 696 but Persian remaining widely spoken. The Iranian populace, initially slow to adopt Islam, gradually integrates into the Islamic community by the ninth century, significantly contributing to Islamic intellectual traditions.

Regional Shifts and Continued Instability

Despite Abbasid centralization, regional unrest persists. Iraq remains restive under Umayyad and early Abbasid rule, with notable rebellions including the Alid Revolt (762–763), which emphasizes enduring sectarian divisions. Armenia, semi-autonomous under the Bagratid dynasty from 806, continues to serve as a crucial buffer state between Muslim and Byzantine spheres. In 813, Ashot I, a Bagratid prince, consolidates power in Georgia, initiating nearly a millennium of Bagratid rule there.

Religious Developments and Legal Schools

The formation of distinct Sunni legal schools—notably those founded by Malik ibn Anas, Abu Hanifa, Al-Shafi‘i, and Ahmad ibn Hanbal—begins in earnest, shaping Islamic jurisprudence. Shia communities, particularly the Twelve Imams tradition, consolidate around revered figures such as Imam Reza, whose tomb at Mashhad becomes a significant pilgrimage site.

Economic and Social Prosperity

The Abbasids promote extensive economic development, infrastructure projects, and social welfare initiatives. Caliph Al-Walid I (705–715) builds the first major hospital in Damascus, institutes quarantine practices for leprosy patients, and initiates public works including street lighting, irrigation, and welfare programs. The Persian Gulf region experiences prosperity linked to the economic success of Baghdad, revitalizing trade networks.

By 819, the Middle East stands transformed by the profound cultural synthesis of Arab, Persian, and local traditions. This dynamic fusion shapes a vibrant civilization whose influences reverberate across the Islamic world and beyond, laying a foundation for centuries of cultural, scientific, and political achievements.

The Fragmentation of the Arab Caliphate and the Rise of Independent Muslim States

Throughout this period, the Arab Caliphate, predominantly ruled by the Umayyad dynasty, is fractured by a series of civil wars, one of which leads to the split of Islam into three major branches:

• Sunnites,
• Kharijites, and
• Shi'ites.

This internal strife ultimately shatters unified Islamic rule. In 750 CE, the Abbasids overthrow the Umayyads, seizing control of the Caliphate. However, a cadet branch of the Umayyads escapes to Muslim Spain, where they establish the Emirate of Córdoba, marking the beginning of an independent Islamic state in Al-Andalus.

Elsewhere, other independent Muslim states emerge, including:

• Idrisid Morocco, and
• Aghlabid Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia, eastern Algeria, and western Libya).

These developments mark the transition from a unified Arab Empire to a diverse Islamic world, ruled by multiple, competing dynasties.

The rapid expansion of Islam from the Middle East to Spain in the seventh and eighth centuries brings a significant portion of the Jewish people under Muslim rule.

Jews, tolerated by Muslims as People of the Book, with a common ancestor in Abraham, regain religious autonomy and, as long as they pay tribute to the rulers, see to the affairs of their communities.

The Umayyad caliphs govern their vast territories in a personal and authoritarian manner.

The caliph, assisted by a few ministers, holds absolute and final authority but delegates extensive executive powers to provincial governors.

Religious judges (qadis) administer Islamic law (sharia) to which all other considerations, including tribal loyalties, are theoretically subordinated.

The Umayyad Dynasty is overthrown in 750 by a rival Sunni faction, the Abbasids, who move  the capital of the caliphate to Baghdad.

The Jordan region becomes even more of a backwater, remote from the center of power.

Its economy declines as trade shifts from traditional caravan routes to seaborne commerce, although the pilgrim caravans to Mecca become an important source of income.

Depopulation of the towns and the decay of sedentary agricultural communities, already discernible in the late Byzantine period, accelerate in districts where pastoral Arab Bedouin, constantly moving into the area from the south, pursue their nomadic way of life.

Egypt, for two centuries after the Muslim conquest, is a province ruled by a line of governors appointed by the caliphs in the east.

Egypt provides abundant grain and tax revenue.

In time, most of the people had accepted the Muslim faith, and the Arabic language becomes the language of government, culture, and commerce.

The Arabization of the country is aided by the continued settlement of Arab tribes in Egypt.

From the time of the conquest onward, Egypt's history is intertwined with the history of the Arab world.

Thus, in the eighth century, Egypt feels the effects of the Arab civil war that results in the defeat of the Umayyad Dynasty, the establishment of the Abbasid caliphate, and the transfer of the capital of the empire from Damascus to Baghdad.

For Egypt, the transfer of the capital farther east means a weakening of control by the central government.

When the Abbasid caliphate begins to decline in the ninth century, local autonomous dynasties arise to control the political, eco nomic, social, and cultural life of the country.

In 711 CE, Muslim Arab and Berber forces launch an invasion of Visigothic Spain from North Africa, swiftly defeating the Visigothic kingdom. Within a few years, they conquer nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula, except for the northernmost regions, where Christian resistance endures.

Their expansion also extends into Septimania in southern Gaul, further consolidating Muslim rule in Western Europeand marking the beginning of Al-Andalus, a new Islamic domain in Iberia.

 

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (676–819 CE): Lombard Decline, Islamic Iberia, and Carolingian Consolidation

The age 675–819 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is marked by dramatic geopolitical shifts, including the decline and eventual fall of the Lombard kingdom, the establishment of the Papal States, and the rise and flourishing of Al-Andalus under Islamic rule.

Lombard Decline and Carolingian Conquest

In the late eighth century, Lombard power in Italy wanes significantly, culminating in its complete absorption by Charlemagne and the expanding Frankish Empire. Charlemagne's conquest in 774 CE ends the Lombard Kingdom, integrating northern and central Italy into his empire and solidifying Frankish dominance.

Formation of the Papal States

The Franks, under Pepin the Short and later Charlemagne, play a critical role in establishing and reinforcing the temporal power of the papacy. Pepin’s historic "Donation" in 756 CE grants central Italian territories to the pope, founding the Papal States—a significant political entity governed directly by the papacy, which endures for centuries.

Al-Andalus under Umayyad Rule

Following the Islamic conquest of Visigothic Spain beginning in 711 CE, the Iberian Peninsula, now called Al-Andalus, initially comes under the religious and political authority of the Umayyad caliphs in Damascus. Governors, typically of Syrian origin, bring Byzantine-influenced administrative practices, establishing a sophisticated, urban-based aristocracy that includes many converted Visigothic nobles.

Berber Influence and Societal Transformation

Despite Arab political dominance, North African Berbers constitute the largest population group among the Islamic settlers, making up roughly twenty percent of the occupied territory. Berbers, known for their religious fervor and fundamentalism, significantly shape the religious and social character of Iberian Islam. Many settle widely throughout Spain, profoundly influencing its rural and urban communities.

Cultural Integration and Religious Pluralism

In Al-Andalus, widespread conversion to Islam occurs among both Visigothic elites and peasants, though pockets of Hispano-Roman Christianity persist, notably the Mozarab communities. These Christians, alongside a sizable Jewish minority—over five percent of the population—play significant roles in commerce, scholarship, and professional life, particularly in cities like Córdoba, Seville, and Toledo.

Independent Emirate of Córdoba

In 756 CE, the Umayyad dynasty in Damascus falls to the Abbasids, prompting Umayyad prince Abd al-Rahman I to flee to Spain, establishing an independent emirate in Córdoba. His rule (756–788 CE) marks the beginning of a vibrant political entity that thrives culturally, intellectually, and economically, unmatched in contemporary Europe.

Muslim Colonization and Agricultural Development

In Lusitania, Muslim settlement initially takes root but is hindered by unsuitable agricultural conditions north of the Tagus River, especially along the Rio Douro. Preference emerges for the drier, familiar regions southward, particularly the Algarve, where Muslim agricultural practices and settlements leave lasting imprints. The Muslim aristocracy revitalizes urban life, while rural landscapes see a mix of small Muslim farmers and converted Visigothic peasants.

Technological Advances in Metallurgy

Technological innovations, notably the development of the Catalan forge in Iberia around this time, significantly enhance iron production capabilities, transforming medieval economic and military capacities throughout Europe. This advancement facilitates greater agricultural productivity and improved military strength, underpinning regional prosperity.

Legacy of the Age

The era 676–819 CE reshapes Mediterranean Southwest Europe through profound geopolitical, religious, and cultural transformations. The fall of Lombard Italy and rise of the Papal States alter the region’s political structures, while the flourishing of Al-Andalus establishes a vibrant, multicultural Islamic society. These developments set enduring patterns for medieval European history, influencing cultural and political trajectories for centuries to come.

The Arab-dominated Umayyad dynasty at Damascus is overthrown in 756 by the Abbasids, who move the caliphate to Baghdad.

One Umayyad prince flees to Spain and, under the name of Abd al Rahman (r. 756-88), founds a politically independent emirate, which is at this time the farthest extremity of the Islamic world.

His dynasty will flourish for two hundred and fifty years.

Nothing in Europe will compare with the wealth, the power, and the sheer brilliance of Al Andalus during this period.

The Abbasids, rivals of the Umayyads, are members of the Hashim clan, but the word "Hashimiyya" seems to refer specifically to Abu Hashim, a grandson of Ali and son of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya.

Hashimiyya missions beginning around 719 had begun to seek adherents in Khorasan, their campaign framed as one of proselytism (dawah).

They seek support for a "member of the family" of Muhammad, without making explicit mention of the Abbasids.

These missions meet with success both among Arabs and non-Arabs (mawali), although the latter may have played a particularly important role in the growth of the movement.

Abu Muslim around 746 assumes leadership of the Hashimiyya in Khorasan.

He successfully initiates an open revolt in 747, organized under the sign of the black flag, against Umayyad rule.

He soon establishes control of Khorasan, expelling its Umayyad governor, and dispatches an army westwards.