Murad I (r. 1360-89) annexes most of Thrace (called Rumelia, or "Roman land," by the Turks), encircling Constantinople, and moves the seat of Ottoman government to Adrianople (Edirne) in Europe.

The Ottoman ghazis defeat the Serbs in 1389 at the Battle of Kosovo, although at the cost of Murad's life.

Power in Anatolia devolves to several Turkish emirates, among them the recently emigrated Ottoman dynasty, who seize Gallipoli in 1354, establishing the Ottomans' first permanent establishment in Europe, at the key point of the crossing from Asia.

Mongols and Turks continue to push from the north and east until the second half of the fourteenth century, when the Ottoman Turks emerge as the dominant Turkish state in the western half of the region, conquering all but the Kingdom of Cyprus and the Ionian and Aegean holdings of Genoa, Venice, and the Knights of St. John.

John V Palaiologos, after securing the imperial throne and ousting the Kantkouzene family from power, has vainly sought military aid from neighboring principalities to mount a defense of the empire against invading Ottoman Turks.

By 1359, the Turks have taken most of the imperial territories and surrounded Constantinople.

The seeds of some of the basic Ottoman imperial institutions are sown under Murad.

The administrative military offices of kaziasker (military judge), beylerbeyi (commander in chief), and grand vizier (chief minister) crystallize and are granted to persons outside the family of Osman, founder of the dynasty.

The origins of the Janissary (Yeniçeri; “New Force”) corps and the devshirme (child-levy) system through which the Janissaries are recruited are also traceable to Murad's reign.

The Kapikulu Corps, founded by Grand Vizier Chandarli Kara Halil and Kara Rüstem of Karaman during Murad's reign, are the Ottoman version of the Seljuq Ghulam Guards, founded by the Abbasids and in use since the eighth century.

“Kapi”, originally used as Kapu, means “The Gate” in Turkish but represents the Palace, while “Kapikulu” means “Palace Guard”.

...lays siege to Varna and sends Tsar Ivan Alexander an ultimatum to release John V or suffer further defeat.

Ivan Alexander releases John V and Amadeus returns to spend the winter in Mesembria, arriving there with John V before Christmas.

...defeat Amadeus’s crusade to regain Adrianople, but not before the Catholic crusaders have committed so many atrocities against the Orthodox Christians that many Bulgarians now regard Turkish rule as preferable to alliance with the Roman Catholic West.

The Middle East: 1360–1371 CE

Ottoman State-Building and Leadership Transition

During the period 1360–1371 CE, the Ottoman state, under the aging Sultan Orhan, continues to consolidate its institutions, laying critical foundations for future expansion. While Orhan maintains nominal authority, real power increasingly passes to his second son, Murad. Orhan's first and favored son, Suleyman Pasha, had died tragically in 1357 after injuries sustained from falling from his horse near Bolayir on the coast of the Sea of Marmara. Deeply affected by this loss, Orhan retreats into a secluded life in Bursa, leaving governance largely in Murad’s capable hands. Orhan passes away in 1362 at the age of seventy-nine after a reign of thirty-seven years, and is interred at the tomb known as Gümüşlü Kümbet alongside family members.

Murad I's ascension marks the strengthening of Ottoman administrative and military structures. He actively integrates the elite military force of Janissaries, which continues to grow into a powerful tool of Ottoman expansion. Murad pushes the frontier westward, solidifying Ottoman influence in Thrace and preparing the groundwork for further incursions into the Balkans and against the declining Byzantine Empire.

Continued Fragmentation and Turmoil in Persia

In the post-Il-Khanid territories of Persia and Iraq, fragmentation persists as various Mongol and Turkic successor states struggle for dominance. The Jalayrid Sultanate, descended from the Mongol Jalayir tribe originally from the Darliqin along the Shilka River, maintains a precarious hold on power in western Persia and Iraq. Despite their historical influence, the Jalayrids find themselves increasingly challenged by regional rivals and internal dissent, contributing to ongoing political instability.

Cultural and Intellectual Flourishing

Despite the turmoil of political fragmentation, the era remains culturally and intellectually rich. The legacy of cross-cultural exchange facilitated by scholars such as Gregory Bar Hebraeus continues to resonate throughout the region. Major cities like Baghdad, Damascus, and Shiraz remain vibrant intellectual hubs, with continued contributions to philosophy, literature, and the sciences.

Shifts in Crusader Power

The remaining Crusader fortifications, particularly those under the Knights Hospitaller, continue to face intense military pressure from surrounding Muslim entities, including the Ottomans. Their hold over key fortresses and strategic points, such as Krak des Chevaliers, is increasingly tenuous. These pressures significantly weaken Crusader political and military influence in the Levant, setting the stage for eventual retreat and collapse.

Prelude to Further Epidemics

The region also remains under the shadow of recurring outbreaks of the Black Death, which periodically resurges, impacting demographics, economies, and societal structures profoundly. Though the initial devastating wave had occurred decades earlier, continued outbreaks serve as persistent reminders of the fragility and volatility of medieval Middle Eastern societies.

In sum, the period from 1360–1371 CE witnesses a crucial leadership transition within the expanding Ottoman state, continued fragmentation in the territories once held by the Il-Khanids, and sustained cultural and scholarly activity amidst political turmoil. The remaining Crusader presence weakens further under unrelenting military pressure, and the specter of recurring plague outbreaks continues to influence the broader dynamics of the Middle East.

Some of the most important civil and military institutions of Orhan's state during his reign over the Ottoman Turks have been founded in the western provinces of Anatolia, but have been planted also also on the European continent.

Orhan's eldest and most experienced son and likely heir, Suleyman Pasha, had died in 1357 after injuries sustained from a fall from a horse near Bolayir on the coast of the sea of Marmara.

The horse that Suleyman fell from was buried alongside him and their tombs can still be seen today.

Orhan is said to have been greatly affected by the death of his son.

He leaves most of the powers of state in the hands of his second son Murad and lives a secluded life in Bursa, where he dies in 1362, at the age of seventy-nine, after a reign of thirty-seven years.

He is buried here in the türbe (tomb) with his wife and children, called Gümüşlü Kumbet.