The Migration Period (c. 300–700 CE): The Transition from Late Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages

The Migration Period, also known as the Völkerwanderung ("wandering of peoples"), was a major human migration that took place in Europe between roughly 300 and 700 CE, marking the transition from Late Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages. From the Roman and Greek perspective, it is often referred to as the "Barbarian Invasions."

Causes of the Migration

Several factors contributed to the mass movement of peoples across Europe:

1. The Hunnic Incursions (4th–5th centuries)

   • The Huns, a nomadic people possibly of Turkic or Mongolic origin, swept into Eastern Europe from Central Asia.
   • Their advance forced Germanic and other tribes to flee westward, triggering further migrations.

2. Turkic and Steppe Migrations

   • The early Turkic expansion and shifting power dynamics in Central Asia contributed to displacements among nomadic groups.

3. Population Pressures and Climate Change

   • Environmental changes and resource depletion in certain regions may have compelled migrations.
   • Overpopulation or crop failures in northern Europe might have prompted tribes to seek new lands.

Key Migratory Groups and Their Impact

• Goths – Split into Visigoths and Ostrogoths, they played key roles in the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
• Vandals – Migrated through Gaul and Spain, eventually sacking Rome in 455 CE before establishing a kingdom in North Africa.
• Suebi – Settled in northwestern Iberia, forming the Kingdom of Galicia (modern Portugal and Spain).
• Franks – Established the Frankish Kingdom, which evolved into modern France and Germany.
• Bulgars, Slavs, and Alans – Entered the Balkans and Eastern Europe, reshaping its ethnic and linguistic landscape.

Continuation of Migrations Beyond 700 CE

Migrations did not stop in 700 CE; instead, successive waves of nomadic and Slavic peoples continued reshaping Europe:

• Slavs – Expanded across Central and Eastern Europe, influencing later Slavic nations.
• Avars, Bulgars, and Hungarians – Established powerful steppe empires in Eastern Europe.
• Pechenegs, Cumans, and Tatars – Continued nomadic invasions into Byzantium and Kievan Rus’ in the medieval period.

Significance of the Migration Period

• Led to the decline of the Western Roman Empire (476 CE) and the foundation of early medieval European kingdoms.
• Marked the cultural and linguistic transformation of Europe, laying the groundwork for medieval political structures.
• Accelerated the fusion of Roman, Germanic, and steppe influences, which defined the social, legal, and economic systems of medieval Europe.

The Migration Period was a defining era in European history, setting the stage for feudal societies, the rise of new kingdoms, and the shaping of modern European nations.

Eastern Southeast Europe (376–387 CE): Gothic Crisis and the Battle of Adrianople

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Arrival and Settlement of the Goths

In 376 CE, a massive influx of displaced Goths, primarily the Thervingi, led by Fritigern, arrived at the banks of the Danube River, fleeing from the advancing Huns. They requested refuge within the Roman Empire, and Emperor Valens allowed their settlement on the empire’s southern frontier, promising land, protection, and food provisions in exchange for their status as foederati (allied peoples serving Roman interests).

Roman Mismanagement and Humanitarian Crisis

Despite assurances, Roman corruption and logistical failures resulted in inadequate provisions, severe famine, and inhumane conditions. The Goths, largely retaining their arms due to Roman corruption, were confined without sufficient food, forced into the desperate measure of trading their own people—especially children and women—as slaves in exchange for dog meat to survive. This severe humanitarian crisis precipitated open revolt.

Military Developments and Conflict

Outbreak of Gothic Revolt

Frustrated by Roman treachery and incompetence, the Goths began open rebellion following a failed assassination attempt on their leaders in the city of Marcianople. By 377 CE, the Goths had organized into a substantial military threat, systematically plundering the countryside, overwhelming weak Roman defenses, and laying waste to significant areas of Thrace and the Balkans.

Battle of Adrianople (378 CE)

Emperor Valens personally led a Roman army north from Constantinople in an attempt to defeat the Gothic rebellion decisively. However, the Roman forces suffered a catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Adrianople (378 CE), in which Valens himself was killed. This event marked a pivotal turning point, severely weakening the empire’s military capabilities and prestige.

Subsequent Gothic Raids and Roman Response

Following their victory, the Goths gained almost unchecked freedom to raid and pillage. In 379 CE, they moved northwest, ravaging the region of Dacia, and subsequently split into two factions due to logistical strain: the Tervingi under Fritigern moved southeast toward Macedonia, while the Greuthungi traveled north into Pannonia, where they suffered defeat by the Western Roman Emperor Gratian.

Economic and Technological Developments

Devastation of Regional Economy

The Gothic incursions severely disrupted the local economies. Agricultural production collapsed, trade routes were compromised, and significant damage to urban centers and rural infrastructure created economic instability. Many regions of the Roman Balkans experienced long-term economic stagnation, with some areas never fully recovering.

Changes in Military Logistics

The crisis compelled the Romans to rethink their military strategies and logistics, prompting significant adaptations, including reliance on allied barbarian foederati troops. This shift in military policy laid groundwork for future Roman-barbarian relations, altering military provisioning and infrastructure demands.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Cultural Displacement and Decline

The widespread destruction and demographic upheaval significantly disrupted cultural continuity. Cities like Adrianople and Marcianople witnessed destruction or severe damage, impacting the preservation and transmission of classical traditions. Cultural activities increasingly shifted toward defensive and survivalist priorities.

Social and Religious Developments

Emergence of Foederati System

Following the Gothic victory, Rome, facing irreversible territorial and military realities, formally recognized the Goths as an autonomous people within imperial boundaries. The peace treaty of October 3, 382 CE, represented a monumental shift in imperial policy, setting a precedent for future barbarian settlements within the empire, effectively institutionalizing the foederati system.

Religious and Social Adaptations

Amidst this turmoil, social structures and religious practices adapted to new realities. Indigenous and Roman traditions persisted, though significantly challenged by the profound instability and shifting demographics resulting from Gothic integration.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era from 376 to 387 CE represented one of the most significant turning points in Roman and European history. The catastrophic Roman defeat at Adrianople symbolized the empire’s increasing inability to manage internal crises and external threats effectively. For the first time, Rome accommodated a substantial autonomous barbarian group within its borders, establishing a critical precedent that hastened the eventual fragmentation of Roman authority and the rise of successor barbarian kingdoms throughout Europe.

Displaced Goths and other tribes arrive in the summer and fall of 376 on the Danube River, on the border of the Roman Empire, requesting asylum from the Huns.

Fritigern, a leader of the Thervingi, appeas to the Roman emperor Valens to be allowed to settle with his people on the south bank of the Danube, where they hope to find refuge from the Huns, who lack the ability to cross the wide river in force.

Valens permits this, and promises the Goths farming land, grain rations, and protection under the Roman armies as “allies” (foederati).

The ones that crossed are supposed to have their weapons confiscated; however, the Romans in charge accept bribes to allow the Goths to retain their weapons.

With so many people in such a small area, famine strikes the Goths, and Rome is unable to supply them with either the food they were promised or the land; they herd the Goths into a temporary holding area surrounded by an armed Roman garrison.

There is only enough grain left for the Roman garrison, who simply let the Goths starve.

The Romans provide a grim alternative: the trade of slaves (often children and young women) for dog meat.

When Fritigern appeals to Valens for help, he is told that his people will find food and trade in the markets of the distant city of Marcianople.

Having no alternative, some of the Goths trek south in a death march, losing the sickly and old along the path.

When they finally reach Marcianople's gates, they are barred by the city's military garrison and denied entry; moreover, the Romans unsuccessfully try to assassinate the Goth leaders during a banquet.

Open revolt begins.

The main body of Goths spend the rest of 376 and early 377 near the Danube plundering food from the immediate region.

Roman garrisons are able to defend isolated forts but most of the country is vulnerable to Gothic plunder.

War begins in earnest in late winter 377.

The remaining Goths move south from the Danube to Marcianople, and next appear near Adrianople (modern Edirne).

The Roman response is to send a force under Valens to meet and defeat the Goths.

Valens moves north from Constantinople in 378 and is defeated (and himself killed) at the Battle of Adrianople.

The victory gives the Goths freedom to roam at will, plundering throughout Thrace for the rest of 378.

The Goths meet only light Roman resistance in 379 and advance northwest into Dacia, plundering that region.

The Goths divide in 380 into Terving and Greuthung armies, in part because of the difficulty of keeping such a large number supplied.

The Greuthungi move north into Pannonia, where they are defeated by western emperor Gratian.

The Tervingi under Fritigern move south and east to Macedonia, where they take "protection money" from towns and cities rather than sacking them outright.

Forces of the western Empire in 381 drive the Goths back to Thrace, where finally, peace is made on October 3, 382.

The Goths by the end of the war have killed a Roman emperor, destroyed a Roman army and laid waste large tracts of the Roman Balkans, much of which will never recover.

The Roman Empire has for the first time negotiated a peace settlement with an autonomous barbarian tribe inside the borders of the Empire, a situation that a generation before would have been unthinkable.

The lesson is not lost on other tribes, including the Goths themselves, who will not long remain peaceful.

Rome, after the crushing defeat, is no longer in a position to drive all its enemies from its territories.

Tribes that can no longer be expelled begin to be settled within the empire as foederati, receiving subsidies and in return supplying troops.

The Western Empire under the pressure of continued invasions will collapse within a century and be carved up into barbarian kingdoms.

North Africa (376–387 CE)

Imperial Challenges, Regional Resilience, and Cultural Continuity

Imperial Turmoil and Regional Stability

Between 376 and 387 CE, North Africa experiences imperial instability due to broader crises within the Roman Empire, including tensions arising from the Battle of Adrianople (378 CE). Despite these upheavals, the region maintains considerable administrative stability, relying on established governance systems and resilient economic structures.

Military Defense and Frontier Vigilance

Roman military units stationed along the strategic frontier, particularly from Vescera (Biskra) to Ad Majores (Hennchir Besseriani), continue vigilant defense against persistent threats from Berber incursions and Saharan nomadic groups. Effective military oversight ensures the ongoing security of vital agricultural and trade activities.

Sustained Economic Strength and Agricultural Productivity

North Africa sustains its robust economic activity, notably in grain and olive oil production, which remain essential commodities within the Roman economy. Prominent trade cities including Utica, Leptis Magna, and Caesarea (Cherchell) continue thriving, leveraging active Mediterranean commerce despite broader imperial uncertainties.

Numidia and Mauretania: Economic Stability and Cultural Integration

Numidia maintains economic stability and social cohesion through sustained Roman infrastructural investments and effective governance. The integration of indigenous traditions within the Roman administrative framework continues to support regional stability.

Mauretania remains prosperous through dynamic trade activities, notably in grain, olive oil, and luxury goods. The city of Caesarea consistently reinforces its status as an influential economic and cultural center, benefiting from continued Roman support and investment.

Cyrenaica: Cultural Continuity and Economic Stability

Cyrenaica preserves its intellectual prominence and economic strength. The Greek Pentapolis—Cyrene, Barce (Al Marj), Euhesperides (Benghazi), Teuchira (Tukrah), and Apollonia (Susah)—remains actively engaged in Mediterranean commerce and scholarly activities, contributing significantly to regional stability and cultural vitality.

Tripolitania: Ongoing Prosperity and Cultural Heritage

Tripolitania continues its economic prosperity through robust olive oil production and active trans-Saharan commerce facilitated by the Garamantes. Punic cultural heritage remains vibrant, especially in cities such as Leptis Magna, sustaining their distinctive identity within the broader Roman context.

Berber, Garamantian, and Saharan Communities

Berber communities remain economically engaged through vibrant coastal cities, particularly Oea (Tripoli). Inland Berber tribes sustain traditional governance systems and benefit indirectly from coastal prosperity.

The Garamantes retain their essential role as trans-Saharan trade facilitators, ensuring sustained economic and cultural exchanges between sub-Saharan Africa and Mediterranean markets.

Pastoral communities including the Mauri (Moors) continue serving as critical intermediaries, reinforcing inland and coastal trade networks and significantly enhancing regional economic stability.

Christianity: Continued Influence and Social Resilience

Christianity maintains its influential role, supporting regional cohesion and identity despite broader imperial instability. Christian communities remain resilient, adapting effectively to changing political and social dynamics, and continue to expand their influence within North African society.

Cultural Syncretism and Continued Vibrancy

Persistent interactions among diverse cultural and religious communities—including Berber, Roman, Greek, Jewish, Garamantian, Mauri, and Saharan nomads—continue enriching North Africa’s cultural fabric. Ongoing cultural syncretism ensures adaptability and vibrancy, blending indigenous Berber customs with Roman, Greek, Phoenician, and Saharan traditions.

Regional Resilience and Strategic Importance

By 387 CE, North Africa demonstrates impressive resilience, maintaining robust economic productivity, vigilant frontier defenses, and dynamic cultural interactions despite broader imperial uncertainties. The region’s sustained stability underscores its enduring strategic importance within the Roman Empire.

Valentinian's advisers are sentenced to death, including Theodosius the Elder, apparently the victim of political intrigues by enemies at court.

Arrested and taken to Carthage, he is executed in early 376.

The reasons for his execution are not clear, but it is thought to have resulted from a factional power struggle in Italy after the sudden death of Valentinian I.

His son Theodosius withdraws from Moesia to his Spanish estates.

Gratian’s Accession and the Rise of Ausonius’ Family in Gaul (375 CE)

At just seventeen years old, Gratian became the new Western Roman Emperor following the death of his father, Valentinian I, in 375 CE. Lacking extensive administrative or military experience, he relied heavily on key supporters in Gaul, particularly the wealthy and influential family of the poet and scholar Decimus Magnus Ausonius, his longtime tutor and mentor from Burdigala (modern Bordeaux, France).

1. The Influence of Ausonius and His Family

• Ausonius, a distinguished rhetorician, poet, and educator, had served as Gratian’s tutor since childhood, shaping his intellectual and political education.
• With Gratian’s ascension, Ausonius and his family gained significant political power, becoming the leading influence at the imperial court in Gaul.
• Gratian rewarded Ausonius by elevating him to high office, appointing him as Praetorian Prefect of Africa, Italy, and Gaul, giving him control over vast administrative and financial matters.

2. The Role of Bordeaux and Gaul in Gratian’s Rule

• Bordeaux, already a major intellectual and cultural center, gained further prominence as a key power base for Gratian’s supporters.
• The Gallic elite, particularly Ausonius’ family, played a crucial role in stabilizing the Western Roman Empire, as Gratian faced threats from both external invasions and internal political struggles.
• The appointment of a scholar-poet like Ausonius to high office reflected Gratian’s preference for intellectual and civilian administrators over traditional military leaders, a choice that would later influence his rule.

3. The Long-Term Consequences of Ausonius’ Influence

• Ausonius’ growing power alienated sections of the military aristocracy, who felt his policies favored senatorial elites over the army.
• His influence marked a shift toward civilian bureaucracy in imperial governance, yet this shift also weakened the empire’s military responsiveness.
• Gratian’s reliance on Ausonius and his faction ultimately left him vulnerable to later usurpations and military coups, particularly from Magnus Maximus in 383 CE.

4. Conclusion: The Rise of a Scholarly Elite in Roman Gaul

• Gratian’s early rule (375–383 CE) was heavily shaped by Ausonius and his Bordeaux-based family, marking a period of intellectual governance but also growing discontent among the military elite.
• The political rise of Ausonius demonstrated the increasing power of Gallic elites within the Western Roman Empire, a trend that would continue in Late Antiquity.
• However, this shift also contributed to Gratian’s later downfall, as his lack of strong military backing made him vulnerable to political challenges.

Gratian’s reliance on his former tutor Ausonius showcased the growing power of civilian aristocrats in Late Roman politics, a development that would play a key role in the later transformation of the Western Roman Empire.

Gratian announces a liberal principate.

Advised by Bishop Ambrose of Milan, he begins a systematic persecution of the pagans.

Confiscating the fortunes of the temples and adding the money to the Imperial Treasury, he removes the Altar of Victory from the Senate.

He also proscribes Arianism and Donatism.

Valentinian’s key advisor, Maximus, for the past five years the praetorian prefect of Gaul, is removed from his post on April 16, 376, as part of a purge of the old regime.

In Rome, Gratian has the support of the Symmachi and the Nicomachi Flaviani, representatives of the pagan aristocracy.

Justina, the mother of Gratian, and an Arian, seeks support for her son among the Arians and pagans of Rome and even among the African Donatists (a Christian heresy), whose sect, centered at Thamugadi, has begun to fade.

The Huns had appeared some years after the middle of the fourth century from the steppes beyond the Volga River.

Having first overrun the Alani, who occupy the plains between the Volga and the Don rivers, …

…the Huns quickly overthrow the Greuthungs (Greutingi), probably the people later known as the Ostrogoths, who, invading southward from the Baltic Sea in the previous century, had built up a huge state stretching from the Don to the Dniester rivers (in present-day Ukraine) and from the Black Sea to the Pripet Marshes (southern Belarus).

The kingdom has reached its highest point under King Ermanaric, who, when the Huns attack his people and subjugate them about 376, is said to have committed suicide at an advanced age.

(Although many Greuthung graves have been excavated south and southeast of Kiev, little is known about their state.

The Greuthungs were probably literate in the third century, and their trade with the Romans was highly developed.)