The Middle East: 477–334 BCE

Persian Dominance and the Path to Hellenization

Achaemenid Rule and Administrative Stability

The Achaemenid Persian Empire continues to exercise considerable influence across the Middle East from 477 to 334 BCE, achieving significant territorial and administrative sophistication despite earlier setbacks such as the Greco-Persian Wars. Persian control remains effective over a vast region including Anatolia, the Levant, Egypt, and parts of Central Asia. Cultural inclusivity, economic vitality, and innovative governance methods initiated by Cyrus and Darius are sustained, reinforcing the empire’s enduring stability.

Artaxerxes’ Reign and Internal Challenges

Under the successive reigns of Artaxerxes I (465–424 BCE) and Artaxerxes II (404–358 BCE), internal factionalism and provincial rebellions periodically challenge Persian authority. Revolts in Egypt and Cyprus demand repeated Persian military intervention, reflecting the complexity and vastness of imperial governance. Despite such disruptions, the robust Persian infrastructure, including the extensive road network, effectively mitigates these threats by enabling rapid administrative and military responses.

Phoenician Maritime Dominance

Phoenician cities, vital components of the Persian naval and economic power, significantly bolster Persian dominance in maritime trade. Tyre emerges as a crucial economic hub, renowned for its purple dye and luxury textiles, widely distributed across the Persian Empire and the Mediterranean. The Phoenicians also supply critical naval assets, maintaining Persian military strength at sea.

Evagoras and Cypriot Autonomy

Cyprus maintains a distinctive degree of autonomy during this period, primarily through its culturally Greek-oriented city-kingdoms, especially Salamis under King Evagoras (411–374 BCE). Evagoras unifies the Cypriot kingdoms, promotes Greek culture, introduces the Greek alphabet to replace the Cypriot syllabary, and initially maintains friendly ties with Persia, even securing Persian support for Athens against Sparta in 394 BCE. However, relations deteriorate, leading to conflict. Following his naval defeat at the Battle of Citium in 381 BCE, Evagoras negotiates a peace in 376 BCE, retaining nominal kingship under Persian oversight. His assassination in 374 BCE ends a notable reign marked by cultural advancement and regional influence.

Technological and Cultural Innovations

Persian rule fosters significant technological and scientific advancements, including improvements in mercury amalgamation techniques that enhance metalworking and mining. Persian engineering expertise is evident in the sophisticated architecture at Persepolis and other regional capitals, demonstrating a fusion of diverse cultural influences under Persian governance.

Decline of Persian Power and Macedonian Ascendancy

By the mid-fourth century BCE, Persian influence wanes, paving the way for the ascendancy of Macedon under Philip II (359–336 BCE). His son, Alexander the Great (336–323 BCE), initiates ambitious military campaigns against Persian territories. Alexander decisively defeats Persian forces in battles such as Granicus (334 BCE), significantly shifting the geopolitical balance and accelerating the decline of Achaemenid rule.

Cultural Legacy and Transition to Hellenism

The era concludes with rapid Hellenization, marked by extensive cultural exchanges and integration of Greek and Persian traditions. Persian governance structures, cultural innovations, and economic achievements deeply influence subsequent civilizations. Alexander’s expansive vision ushers in a new Hellenistic age, dramatically reshaping the cultural and political landscape of the Middle East and embedding a lasting legacy of Persian influence.

Alexander III of Macedon, leading some thirty thousand infantry and five thousand cavalry, invades Asia Minor in 334 in fulfillment of his father’s dream of punishing Persia for the Greco-Persian Wars and for its dominance thereafter of the Balkan Peninsula.

As soon as Alexander crosses the Hellespont, he casts his spear into Asian soil and openly declares that he lays claim to all Asia, which is at this time a fluid geographical concept.

In a romantic gesture inspired by Homer, he visits Troy, paying due religious honor to the tombs of the heroes Achilles and Ajax.

He now marches on Phrygia, where Darius III, the Achaemenid king of Persia, waits with an army.

Alexander confronts his first Persian army at the Granicus River (modern Kocabas, flowing into the Sea of Marmara) in May/June 334.

This is not the central army of the Persian king but a very sizable force levied by the satraps from Anatolia itself, numbering perhaps forty thousand and led by three satraps.

Darius has made no serious preparations to resist the Macedonian invasion.

Alexander's shock troops ford the stream and clamber up the bank under a shower of javelins.

Alexander follows and charges the generals, who are concentrated in the left center of the Persian line, leading the right wing with a battle cry to the god of battle.

He kills two relatives of the Persian king, Darius, and is himself saved from death by his cavalry commander, Cleitus the Black.

The Persian plan to tempt Alexander across the river and kill him in the melee almost succeeds; but the Persian line breaks, and Alexander's victory is complete.

Darius' Greek mercenaries are largely massacred, but two thousand survivors are sent back to Macedonia in chains.

According to Alexander's biographer, Arrian (second century CE), the struggle has cost the Macedonians only one hundred and fifteen men.

This victory exposes western Asia Minor to the Macedonians, and most cities hasten to open their gates.

The tyrants are expelled and (in contrast to Macedonian policy in Greece) democracies are installed.

Alexander thus underlines his Panhellenic policy, already symbolized in the sending of three hundred panoplies (sets of armor) taken at the Granicus as an offering dedicated to Athena at Athens by “Alexander son of Philip and the Greeks (except the Spartans) from the barbarians who inhabit Asia.” (This formula, cited by the Greek historian Arrian in his history of Alexander's campaigns, is noteworthy for its omission of any reference to Macedonia.)

However, the cities remain de facto under Alexander, and his appointment of Calas as satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia reflects his claim to succeed the Great King of Persia.