The Middle East: 309–298 BCE

Linguistic and Cultural Shifts and the Babylonian War

The Babylonian War and the Rise of Seleucus

The Babylonian War (311–309 BCE) between Diadochi kings Antigonus I Monophthalmus and Seleucus I Nicator ends in a decisive victory for Seleucus. This conflict eliminates any chance of restoring Alexander's empire, a reality confirmed at the subsequent Battle of Ipsus. The outcome solidifies Seleucus's control over the eastern satrapies, marking the emergence of the extensive Seleucid Empire.

Evolution of the Old Persian Language

During the late fourth century BCE, the Old Persian language, known through inscriptions, clay tablets, and seals, transitions significantly. Inscriptions from the reigns of Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III evolve into a form of "pre-Middle Persian," setting the stage for Middle Persian and eventually New Persian, the foundation of modern Persian dialects. Recent discoveries in the Persepolis Fortification Archive at the Oriental Institute reveal practical administrative texts in Old Persian, highlighting broader use beyond royal ceremonial contexts.

The Babylonian War, a conflict fought from 311 BCE to 309 BCE between the Diadochi kings Antigonus I Monophthalmus and Seleucus I Nicator, ends in a victory for the latter.

The conflict ends any possibility of restoration of the empire of Alexander the Great, a result confirmed in the Battle of Ipsus.

It also marks the infancy of the Seleucid Empire by giving Seleucus control over the eastern satrapies of Alexander's former empire.

Lysimachus, occupied in Thrace for many years in wars against the local peoples, had taken little part in the struggles among Alexander's other successors in Greece and Asia, and only after the death of Antoginus and the routing of his forces at the Battle of Ipsus does he emerge as a power of the first rank.

He begins to consolidate his power in both Europe and Asia Minor against the threat posed by Demetrius, who retains Sidon and Tyre and command of the sea.

Seleucus had in 302 BCE joined the anti-Antigonus confederation led by Cassander and Lysimachus.

Ceding the claim on his Indian province to Chandragupta in exchange for an elephant corps, he has led his army (including the elephants) across half of Asia to link up with the coalition.

The united armies of Lysimachus and Seleucus engage the forces of Antigonus and Demetrius at Ipsus in Phrygia in 301 BCE.

Although the combined strength of Seleucus and Lysimachus in troops is only slightly inferior to the seventy thousand foot soldiers and ten thousand horses of Antigonus, it is the allies' superiority in elephants, courtesy of Seleucus, that prove invaluable for victory.

The Indian elephants prevent Demetrius, who has pursued too far after defeating the opposing cavalry, from returning to rescue his father.

The eighty-one-year-old Antigonus is killed by a javelin, Demetrius flees, and the greater part of Asia Minor is added to the European possessions of Lysimachus, who has shouldered most of the burden of the campaign.

The allied victory ends any plans the Antigonid court may have had of reuniting Alexander's empire.

Antigonus's kingdom is divided up, with most ending up in the hands of new kingdoms under Lysimachus and Seleucus.

The victors largely follow Antigonus's precedent and have themselves named as kings, but they do not claim power over the erstwhile empire of Alexander nor each other.

Instead, these kings establish a troubled (and in the end failed) modus vivendi with each other, and accept their kingdoms as separate realms.

Antigonus, successful in the field, had been unsuccessful in his diplomatic efforts to keep his enemies isolated: Cassander joins the coalition that defeats and kills Antigonus at Ipsus in 301 and confiscates much of his holdings.

Antigonus’ defeat secures Cassander's control of Macedonia.