The Middle East (1936–1947): Nationalism, World War II, and Shifting Alliances

Between 1936 and 1947, the Middle East experiences profound transformations shaped by nationalist struggles, the upheaval of World War II, and the reconfiguration of international politics. This critical era sees the decline of European colonial influence, the emergence of independent states, and intensified regional rivalries that set the stage for lasting conflict.

Arab Nationalism and Independence Movements

The late 1930s witness rising nationalist fervor across the region, particularly in areas under British and French mandates. In Iraq, nationalist pressures culminate in greater autonomy, though British influence remains strong due to strategic interests, especially the oil industry. Despite the 1930 Anglo-Iraqi Treaty granting formal independence, Britain retains military bases and economic control, fueling Iraqi resentment.

Similarly, Egypt negotiates the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936, which grants increased self-rule but leaves British military presence intact, notably at the strategic Suez Canal. This partial independence intensifies Egyptian nationalist demands for complete sovereignty.

Syria and Lebanon: The Decline of French Control

French dominance over Syria and Lebanon begins to unravel during this period. In Syria, widespread nationalist agitation forces France to agree to independence in principle through the Franco-Syrian Treaty of 1936. However, France reneges on implementation, leading to unrest. During World War II, the defeat of France by Nazi Germany in 1940 critically weakens French authority, allowing nationalist forces in Syria and Lebanon to assert greater independence.

Lebanon achieves formal independence in 1943 following tense negotiations culminating in the National Pact, which establishes a sectarian power-sharing arrangement among Maronites, Sunnis, Shias, and Druzes. France attempts to reassert control in both Lebanon and Syria after the war, but international pressure, notably from Britain and the United States, compels French withdrawal. Both countries gain full independence by 1946, ending French colonial rule in the Levant.

World War II and its Impact on the Region

The onset of World War II (1939–1945) dramatically reshapes the Middle East. Though initially neutral, Iran’s strategic importance leads Britain and the Soviet Union to invade in 1941, overthrowing Reza Shah Pahlavi and installing his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, as shah. Allied occupation secures crucial supply routes for Soviet resistance against Nazi Germany. This occupation simultaneously undermines Iranian sovereignty and triggers intensified nationalism, laying the groundwork for later political upheavals.

In Iraq, nationalist resentment against British control culminates in a pro-Axis coup in April 1941, led by Rashid Ali al-Gaylani. Britain swiftly suppresses this rebellion, reoccupying Baghdad and reinforcing its grip on Iraqi affairs until war’s end. Nonetheless, this episode highlights growing Iraqi nationalism and anti-colonial sentiment.

Turkey, under President İsmet İnönü, successfully maintains strict neutrality throughout World War II, leveraging its strategic position to secure advantageous diplomatic and economic agreements with both Axis and Allied powers. Post-war, however, Turkey increasingly aligns with Western interests, laying foundations for Cold War affiliations.

Palestine: Rising Tensions and British Withdrawal

In British-mandated Palestine, escalating conflict between Arab and Jewish communities marks this period decisively. The 1936–1939 Arab Revolt emerges from Arab opposition to increased Jewish immigration and land purchases. Britain suppresses the revolt with considerable force, but the underlying tensions persist. In response, the British issue the White Paper of 1939, limiting Jewish immigration, aiming to appease Arab demands while alienating Zionists and Jewish refugees fleeing Nazi persecution in Europe.

Following World War II, Jewish resistance to British rule intensifies through militant groups such as the Irgun and Lehi, who violently oppose British presence and demand unrestricted Jewish immigration. Britain, exhausted and facing international pressure, ultimately refers the Palestine question to the newly created United Nations in 1947, leading directly to the partition resolution and subsequent declaration of the state of Israel in 1948.

Saudi Arabia and the Gulf: Emergence of Oil Wealth

In Saudi Arabia, the late 1930s and 1940s bring profound changes. The discovery of commercially viable oil in 1938 by the American-owned Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO) transforms Saudi Arabia's economy and strategic importance. During World War II, Saudi Arabia’s neutrality and willingness to cooperate with the Allies secure its position as a pivotal Western partner. King Abdulaziz ibn Saud uses newfound oil wealth to consolidate central control, modernize infrastructure, and significantly enhance the kingdom's international status.

The smaller Gulf states (Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, and the future UAE) remain under British protection, with Britain increasingly involved in developing regional oil resources. Oil exports from Kuwait, initiated in 1946, substantially boost the sheikhdom’s economic prospects, foreshadowing broader economic transformations throughout the Persian Gulf.

Iran and Turkey: Post-War Realignment and Early Cold War Dynamics

Following wartime occupation, Iran becomes an early Cold War flashpoint. In 1945–1946, the Soviet Union attempts to establish pro-Soviet separatist republics in Iranian Azerbaijan and Kurdistan. Diplomatic pressure from the United States and Britain forces Soviet withdrawal in 1946, leaving Mohammad Reza Shah dependent upon Western support. This crisis significantly heightens Cold War tensions, positioning Iran as a key Western ally against Soviet influence.

Turkey, facing Soviet demands for territorial concessions and joint control of the Turkish Straits, moves decisively toward the West. In 1947, the Truman Doctrine explicitly extends American military and economic assistance to Turkey (and Greece), cementing its strategic alignment with NATO and marking its entry as a crucial player in Cold War geopolitics.

Legacy of the Era (1936–1947)

Between 1936 and 1947, the Middle East moves decisively toward independence from European colonialism, shaped by World War II and emerging Cold War tensions. The establishment of independent Arab states, the assertion of nationalist identities, and intensified regional conflicts—especially the Palestine issue—lay foundations for enduring political struggles. The emergence of oil as an economic powerhouse reshapes the geopolitical significance of the Arabian Peninsula and Gulf. The era’s developments leave a lasting legacy of nationalism, conflict, and strategic rivalry, profoundly influencing regional dynamics throughout the remainder of the twentieth century.

The Near East, 1936 to 1947 CE: Escalating Nationalism, War, and Shifting Alliances

Egyptian Nationalism and Political Turmoil

Political tensions escalate dramatically in Egypt from 1936 onward. Prime Minister Ismail Sidky, previously a key opponent of the nationalist Wafd Party, negotiates with the British to withdraw troops from Egyptian cities, although the status of Sudan remains unresolved, sparking further nationalist agitation. Sidky's resignation in December 1946 leads to Mahmoud El Nokrashy becoming Prime Minister, who unsuccessfully appeals to the United Nations over Sudanese sovereignty. His demand for British evacuation and renegotiation of the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty triggers widespread anti-British demonstrations and violence in Cairo and Alexandria.

During the Second World War, British strategic interests dominate Egyptian politics. In 1942, facing Axis advances under General Erwin Rommel, the British compel King Farouk to appoint Wafdist leader Mustafa Nahhas as Prime Minister. This incident starkly illustrates British dominance and erodes the Wafd Party's credibility, already weakened by allegations of corruption from former member Makram Ubayd.

Emergence of Militant Nationalist Organizations

As mainstream nationalist parties like the Wafd lose popularity, more radical groups gain prominence. Young Egypt, established in 1933 by Ahmad Husayn, promotes a militant nationalism infused with fascist elements, including admiration for Nazi Germany. Its paramilitary wing, the Green Shirts, openly opposes British influence.

Meanwhile, the Muslim Brotherhood, founded by Hasan al Banna in 1928, grows significantly, advocating an Islamic revivalist state based on early Islamic principles. The Brotherhood organizes cells nationwide and develops a secret apparatus to conduct underground activities. These movements represent a new political landscape characterized by militancy and ideological rigor.

British-Egyptian Relations and the Second World War

The 1936 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty permits Britain to maintain military bases in the Suez Canal Zone, solidifying its strategic presence while exacerbating nationalist sentiments. Although nominally ending British capitulations and foreign judicial privileges, the treaty's limitations spur widespread discontent, weakening the Wafd Party.

The outbreak of the Second World War transforms Egypt into a strategic asset for Britain, although Egyptians view the conflict primarily as a European issue. British authorities closely manage Egyptian neutrality, particularly as Axis victories initially mount. The Sudan Defence Force (SDF) expands its role, notably contributing to Allied victories against Italian forces in East Africa and participating in the successful North African campaign.

Sudanese Nationalism and Administrative Reforms

Sudanese nationalism intensifies post-war, driven by the educated elite. The Graduates' General Conference in 1942 submits demands for self-determination and administrative reforms, rejected initially but subsequently prompting the British colonial administration to consider greater Sudanese participation in governance. In response to ongoing nationalist pressures, the British further modernize indirect rule and administrative structures, gradually preparing Sudan for self-governance.

Intensifying Conflict in Palestine

In Palestine, the mid-1930s see sharply increased violence due to heightened Arab resistance to Jewish immigration and Zionist settlement efforts. Adolf Hitler’s rise in Germany drives unprecedented numbers of Jewish refugees toward Palestine, leading to major violence, notably the Arab-Jewish riots of 1936. These conflicts lead the British to impose stricter immigration controls, exacerbating tensions.

The Nazi persecution in Europe profoundly impacts Palestine, with immigration reaching record highs in 1935. Arab fears that Palestine will become predominantly Jewish fuel significant resistance, shaping the region's increasingly volatile demographic and economic landscape.

Legacy of the Era: Prelude to Decolonization and Ongoing Strife

From 1936 to 1947, the Near East is shaped by rising nationalist fervor, World War II upheavals, and deepening colonial tensions. Britain's presence in Egypt and Sudan remains a focal point of nationalist struggle, as Egyptians and Sudanese intensify demands for complete sovereignty. In Palestine, the conflict between Arabs and Jews enters a more violent and irreversible stage, laying the foundations for future regional turmoil.

Northwest Europe (1936–1947): From Abdication Crisis to Postwar Reconstruction

The Abdication Crisis and King George VI (1936)

In 1936, Britain experienced a profound constitutional crisis with the abdication of King Edward VIII, who relinquished the throne to marry Wallis Simpson, an American divorcée deemed unacceptable by the British establishment and public opinion. Edward’s abdication, unprecedented in modern British history, unsettled national life deeply. His brother, King George VI, ascended the throne, providing Britain with a monarch who became a stable, symbolic leader during an era marked by grave international crises and eventual war.

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Rising Threats and Appeasement (1936–1939)

By the late 1930s, Europe plunged steadily toward war. In Germany, Adolf Hitler’s Nazi regime accelerated aggressive expansion, remilitarizing the Rhineland (1936), annexing Austria (Anschluss, 1938), and demanding control over Czechoslovakia’s Sudetenland (Munich Agreement, 1938).

British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain (1937–1940), along with France, pursued appeasement—an effort to avert war through concessions. Chamberlain famously claimed "peace for our time" after the Munich Agreement (1938). However, Hitler’s continued aggression, culminating in his invasion of Poland (September 1, 1939), shattered these hopes, prompting Britain and France to declare war on Germany (September 3, 1939).

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World War II: Britain’s Finest Hour and Darkest Days (1939–1945)

The early stages of World War II were catastrophic for Britain and its allies. Germany rapidly overran Poland (1939), and in spring 1940, launched successful invasions of Denmark, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, and France. Following France’s swift defeat (June 1940), Britain stood alone, facing imminent German invasion.

In May 1940, Chamberlain resigned after losing parliamentary confidence. Winston Churchill became Prime Minister, rallying the British public and leading a defiant resistance against Nazi Germany, famously vowing Britain would "never surrender."

Key wartime developments included:

• Battle of Britain (1940): British RAF fighter pilots successfully defended the United Kingdom against the German Luftwaffe, preventing German invasion.

• The Blitz (1940–1941): German aerial bombardment of British cities, notably London, killing tens of thousands but stiffening British resolve.

• Atlantic Convoys: Britain struggled desperately to sustain critical supply lines across the Atlantic against relentless German U-boat attacks.

• Alliance with the United States (1941–1945): After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor (December 1941), the U.S. entered the war. This vital partnership turned the war’s tide decisively.

• D-Day (June 6, 1944): British, American, and Canadian forces launched the largest seaborne invasion in history, liberating Nazi-occupied Western Europe.

Despite immense sacrifices—over 450,000 British casualties, profound economic hardship, and extensive destruction—Britain emerged victorious, though severely weakened economically.

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Wartime Britain: Social Unity, Rationing, and Mobilization

The war reshaped British society profoundly. Government interventions expanded dramatically: rationing, conscription (including women), censorship, and centralized economic planning became integral aspects of daily life. Britain mobilized comprehensively for total war, with women significantly entering industry, agriculture, and military services, further reshaping gender roles.

Culturally, wartime solidarity reinforced national unity, exemplified by radio broadcasts from Churchill and King George VI. The BBC became crucial for morale and communication, while films and music boosted public spirits and national identity.

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Postwar Political Transformation: Labour’s Landslide and Attlee’s Britain (1945–1947)

Following victory in Europe (May 1945), Britain held its first general election in a decade (July 1945). Churchill’s wartime leadership was widely admired, but voters dramatically elected a Labour government under Clement Attlee, desiring sweeping social reforms after wartime hardships.

Labour’s landslide victory inaugurated Britain’s postwar welfare state and nationalized key industries:

• National Health Service (NHS): Established in 1948 (legislation passed in 1946–1947), providing universal healthcare free at point of use.

• National Insurance Act (1946): Comprehensive social security provisions for illness, unemployment, and pensions.

• Education Act (1944) (implemented postwar): Universal secondary education, dramatically expanding opportunities.

• Nationalization: Coal, railways, electricity, gas, and other major sectors nationalized to promote economic stability and employment.

Attlee’s reforms transformed British society profoundly, establishing the welfare state’s foundations that shaped postwar Britain for generations.

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Economic Struggles and Postwar Austerity (1945–1947)

Despite victory, Britain faced crippling economic challenges. War debts, severe infrastructure damage, and reliance on American financial aid (notably the Anglo-American Loan Agreement, 1946) imposed harsh austerity measures. Rationing intensified postwar, shortages persisted, and Britain struggled economically while attempting reconstruction and recovery.

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British Empire and Imperial Decline (1945–1947)

The war profoundly accelerated Britain’s imperial decline. Wartime debts, nationalist movements, and changing global attitudes forced reconsideration of colonial policy. India’s independence struggle reached culmination with Labour agreeing to independence and partition (1947), marking the symbolic beginning of the British Empire’s dissolution.

Similarly, Britain withdrew from the Middle East’s Palestine Mandate, confronted by irreconcilable Arab-Jewish conflict, and struggled with rising nationalist demands across Asia and Africa.

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Scandinavia and Iceland: Stability, Occupation, and Independence (1940–1947)

During WWII, Scandinavia experienced varied fates:

• Denmark and Norway were occupied by Nazi Germany (1940–1945). Both resisted German occupation actively, with Norway's resistance particularly notable.

• Sweden maintained neutrality, carefully balancing its diplomacy to avoid occupation.

• Iceland, strategically vital, was occupied peacefully by British (1940) and later American (1941–1945) forces. In 1944, Iceland peacefully severed its union with Denmark, formally declaring full independence as a republic.

Postwar, Scandinavia rapidly recovered, emphasizing social welfare states and economic reconstruction.

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Technological Advances and Infrastructure Recovery

Wartime accelerated technological innovation. Radar, aviation, and cryptography (notably at Bletchley Park) advanced significantly, profoundly impacting military and civilian technology. Infrastructure reconstruction began postwar, aided by American financial support (later Marshall Plan assistance), facilitating economic recovery and modernization.

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Cultural Transformation and Postwar Reflection

The war deeply impacted British culture and identity. Wartime films, literature, and poetry profoundly reflected national sacrifices, resilience, and evolving social values. Prominent writers like George Orwell and poets such as Dylan Thomas articulated profound reflections on totalitarianism, social justice, and human dignity, influencing postwar intellectual discourse significantly.

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Britain’s Role in Postwar Europe and Global Diplomacy

Postwar, Britain emerged victorious yet diminished economically. With diminished global standing, Britain played critical roles in establishing international institutions such as the United Nations (1945), actively shaping postwar order alongside the U.S. and the Soviet Union. Early Cold War tensions quickly emerged, marking Britain’s diplomatic shift toward close partnership with the U.S. in containing Soviet influence.

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Conclusion: Transition from Crisis to Postwar Reconstruction

Between 1936 and 1947, Northwest Europe—particularly Britain—experienced profound transformation. Britain endured the Abdication Crisis, catastrophic war, severe economic hardships, and ultimately reshaped itself through postwar reforms. Wartime unity, sacrifices, and national determination enabled eventual victory, but economic realities forced significant social and imperial transformations.

Labour’s ambitious welfare-state initiatives reshaped Britain’s social contract fundamentally, creating lasting postwar institutions still central to British life. Simultaneously, imperial decline and international tensions foreshadowed future challenges, positioning Britain in a new global order increasingly dominated by American and Soviet power.

This tumultuous era dramatically transformed Britain, marking the definitive transition from the confident prewar world into a complex postwar modernity, significantly reshaping the nation's identity, politics, and global role for generations.

Palestine's Jewish population has increased from one hundred and seventy thousand or seventeen percent of the population in 1929, the year of the Wailing Wall disturbances, to four hundred thousand, or approximately thirty-one percent of the total, in 1936, the initial year of the Arab Revolt in Palestine.

The immigration of thousands of German Jews has accelerated the pace of industrialization and made the concept of a Jewish state in Palestine a more formidable reality.

The Irgun, which becomes in 1936 an instrument of the Revisionist Party, commits acts of terrorism and assassination against the British, whom it regards as illegal occupiers, and it is also violently anti-Arab.

National Committees are established in all Palestinian towns and large villages.

The AHC calls for a general strike, nonpayment of taxes, and the shutting down of municipal governments, although government employees are allowed to stay at work, and demands cessation of Jewish immigration, an end to all further land sales to the Jews, and the establishment of an Arab national government.

The Palestinian rebellion, the first sustained violent uprising of Palestinian Arabs for more than a century, begins with spontaneous acts of violence committed by the religiously and nationalistically motivated followers of Sheikh 'Izz ad-Din al-Qassam, who had been killed by the British the previous year.

The murder of two Jews in April 1936 leads to escalating violence, and Qassamite groups initiate a general strike in Nablus and ...

..Jaffa, where the largest confrontations occur during April 16-18.

The increase in Jewish immigration and land acquisition, the growing power of Haj Amin el-Husayni, and general Arab frustration at the continuation of European rule, has radicalized increasing numbers of Palestinian Arabs by 1936.

Husayni has come to dominate the Palestinian Arab movement after a bitter clash with other nationalist elements, notably the Nashashibis, over personal rather than ideological differences.

During most of the period of the British mandate, bickering between these groups has seriously weakened the effectiveness of Arab efforts.

They achieve a measure of unity in 1936, when all the Palestinian groups join to create a permanent executive organ known as the Arab Higher Committee (AHC) under Husayni's leadership.

A conference of all National Committees, meeting in Jerusalem, agrees with AHC's call for no taxation without representation, and a general strike begins on May 8.

Simultaneously with the strike, Arab rebels, joined by volunteers from neighboring Arab countries, take to the hills, attacking Jewish settlements and British installations in the northern part of the country.

The Palestine Rebellion has assumed the dimensions of a national revolt by year's end, the mainstay of which is the Arab peasantry.

Thousands of Arabs from all classes are mobilized, and nationalistic sentiment is fanned in the Arabic press, schools, and literary circles.