Persian Gulf War of 1990-91
1990 CE to 1991 CE
The Persian Gulf War (August 2, 1990 – February 28, 1991), a conflict between Iraq and a coalition force from thirty-four nations authorized by the United Nations (UN) and led primarily by the United States and the United Kingdom in order to return Kuwait to the control of the Emir of Kuwait, develops in the context of the Iran-Iraq War and in 1990 Iraq accuses Kuwait of stealing Iraq's oil through slant drilling.
The invasion of Kuwait by Iraqi troops is met with immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by some members of the UN Security Council, and with immediate preparation for war by the United States of America and the United Kingdom.
The expulsion of Iraqi troops from Kuwait begins in January 1991 and is a decisive victory for the coalition forces, which take over Kuwait and enter Iraqi territory.
Aerial and ground combat is confined to Iraq, Kuwait, and bordering areas of Saudi Arabia.
Iraq also launches missiles against targets in Saudi Arabia and Israel in retaliation for their support of the invading forces in Kuwait.
(Since the Iran-Iraq War of 1980-88 had been called the "Gulf War" or "Persian Gulf War" by many news sources, the 1991 war is sometimes called the Second Persian Gulf War, but more commonly, the 1991 war is styled simply the Gulf War or the "First Gulf War", in distinction from the 2003 invasion of Iraq.)
Operation Desert Storm is the U.S. name of the air and land operations and is often used to refer to the conflict.Shortly after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, US President George H.W.
Bush starts to deploy US Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, and Coast Guard units to Saudi Arabia (Operation Desert Shield), while at the same time urging other countries to send their own forces to the scene.
UN coalition-building efforts are so successful that by the time the fighting (Operation Desert Storm) begins on January 16, 1991, twelve countries have sent naval forces, joining the regional states of Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf states, as well as the huge array of the US Navy, which deploys six aircraft-carrier battle groups; eight countries have sent ground forces, joining the regional troops of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, as well as the seventeen heavy and six light brigades of the US Army and nine Marine regiments, with their large support and service forces; and four countries have sent combat aircraft, joining the local air forces of Kuwait, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia, as well as the US Air Force, US Navy, and U.S. Marine aviation, for a grand total of 2,430 fixed-wing aircraft.
US personnel and materiél dwarf the contributions of the others.Against them, the Iraqis have only a few gunboats and small missile craft to match the coalition's armada; but on the other hand, some 1.2 million ground troops with about 5,800 tanks, 5,100 other armored vehicles, and 3,850 artillery pieces make for a lot more strength on the ground.
Iraq also has 750 fighters and bombers, 200 other aircraft, and elaborate missile and gun defenses.
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The Middle East (1984–1995): Shifting Alliances and New Confrontations
Between 1984 and 1995, the Middle East undergoes significant geopolitical shifts shaped by regional rivalries, superpower retrenchment following the Cold War, and changing internal dynamics within states. The era is defined by protracted conflict, evolving alliances, and critical peace initiatives.
The End of the Iran-Iraq War
The devastating Iran-Iraq War continues until 1988, concluding only after inflicting enormous human, economic, and environmental destruction on both sides. In August 1988, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini reluctantly accepts UN Resolution 598, which mandates an immediate ceasefire. Neither country achieves its strategic objectives, leaving unresolved territorial disputes and lingering bitterness.
The conflict leaves Iraq heavily indebted, particularly to its Gulf Arab neighbors who had financed its war effort, creating tensions that quickly erupt into open hostility. Meanwhile, Iran remains politically isolated yet more resolutely committed to exporting its revolutionary ideals.
The Gulf War and its Aftermath
In August 1990, Iraqi President Saddam Hussein, seeking relief from economic pressures and claiming historical rights, invades and occupies Kuwait, prompting global condemnation. The United Nations swiftly imposes sanctions, and a U.S.-led international coalition assembles to reverse the occupation.
The Gulf War (Operation Desert Storm) begins in January 1991, resulting in the swift liberation of Kuwait and the decisive defeat of Iraqi forces. Iraq retreats, leaving catastrophic destruction behind, including widespread oil fires and environmental damage in Kuwait.
Despite Iraq's defeat, Saddam Hussein retains power, brutally suppressing Kurdish and Shi’a rebellions encouraged by the international community yet receiving limited external support. Subsequently, Iraq remains isolated, crippled by stringent international sanctions enforced under UN resolutions.
Rise of American Influence and the New Middle East Order
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, American influence in the Middle East reaches unprecedented levels. The United States strengthens military alliances with Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, notably Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, and the UAE, establishing permanent military bases to maintain regional stability and secure oil supplies.
However, the presence of American troops, especially in Saudi Arabia—home to Islam's holiest sites—provokes increasing resentment among local populations, fueling Islamist extremism that will later emerge violently in global politics.
Lebanon: The Taif Accord and a Fragile Peace
The protracted Lebanese Civil War, ongoing since 1975, reaches a negotiated resolution with the Taif Accord in 1989. Brokered with Saudi support, the accord redistributes political power, reducing Christian dominance, and increasing the political representation of Lebanon’s Muslim communities, especially Sunnis and Shi’as.
The accord, while ending major hostilities, institutionalizes Syrian influence, permitting a large Syrian military presence in Lebanon. Despite nominal peace, Lebanon remains politically fragmented, with Hezbollah consolidating influence in the Shi’a south and central government authority remaining weak.
Israeli-Palestinian Peace Efforts: Madrid and Oslo
In 1991, the United States and the Soviet Union convene the Madrid Conference, initiating direct negotiations between Israel and its Arab neighbors, including Palestinians. Although immediate results are limited, Madrid sets the stage for the historic breakthrough in 1993.
In 1993, Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) sign the Oslo Accords, leading to mutual recognition and the establishment of the Palestinian Authority in parts of the West Bank and Gaza. Yasser Arafat returns to Palestinian territory in 1994 as the head of the Palestinian Authority, symbolizing a historic step toward self-governance. However, unresolved issues—including the status of Jerusalem, refugees, and settlements—quickly stall momentum.
Jordan also formally ends its state of war with Israel, signing a peace treaty in October 1994, thereby significantly reshaping regional dynamics.
Iran after Khomeini: Pragmatism and Continued Revolution
Following the death of Ayatollah Khomeini in 1989, Iran undergoes a subtle internal realignment. Ayatollah Ali Khamenei succeeds Khomeini as Supreme Leader, while Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani becomes president, advocating pragmatic economic policies and cautious international engagement. Despite Rafsanjani’s moderation, Iran remains ideologically committed to revolutionary Shi’a Islam, supporting Hezbollah in Lebanon, Palestinian militants, and various Shi’a factions throughout the Gulf.
Syria: Assad’s Grip Tightens
In Syria, President Hafez al-Assad remains a key regional player, especially in Lebanon and Palestinian affairs. Assad maintains stability through a ruthless security apparatus and continues to balance relationships with the West and Russia, skillfully navigating the post-Cold War diplomatic landscape.
Turkey’s Continued Evolution and Kurdish Conflict
In Turkey, political instability accompanies economic liberalization and rapid urbanization. Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, Turkey grapples with the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) insurgency, a conflict rooted in long-standing ethnic tensions and grievances. Despite harsh military responses, Kurdish demands for cultural and political rights intensify, influencing Turkish domestic politics and regional relations profoundly.
Caucasus: Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan Post-Soviet Independence
With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan achieve independence, facing significant internal and external challenges.
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Georgia struggles with separatist conflicts in Abkhazia and South Ossetia, resulting in civil unrest and weak governance throughout the 1990s.
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Armenia and Azerbaijan engage in a bitter conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh, an ethnic Armenian enclave inside Azerbaijan. A full-scale war erupts in 1988 and intensifies dramatically after independence. A ceasefire agreement in 1994 leaves Armenian forces in control of Nagorno-Karabakh and surrounding Azerbaijani territory, creating unresolved territorial disputes and animosity lasting decades.
These conflicts profoundly influence regional geopolitics, drawing in neighboring countries and global powers, complicating diplomatic efforts.
Legacy of Conflict, Diplomacy, and Transition (1984–1995)
The period from 1984 to 1995 significantly reshapes the Middle Eastern geopolitical landscape. The Gulf War realigns regional and global alliances, placing the United States as a preeminent external power with deepening involvement in Gulf security, a role bringing both stability and unintended consequences.
Peace efforts like the Oslo Accords raise hopes for an enduring Israeli-Palestinian settlement, yet unresolved core issues leave lasting uncertainty and frustration. Similarly, Lebanon’s Taif Accord achieves peace on paper but institutionalizes internal divisions and external influence.
Finally, the emergence of newly independent states in the Caucasus introduces fresh instability into the Middle East periphery, highlighting ethnic nationalism and territorial disputes that remain unresolved. Collectively, these events establish lasting dynamics that shape regional politics well into the 21st century.
Saddam Hussein attempts to stir up Arab antagonism against Israel.
He finds ready support among ...
As the United States dispatches troops to Saudi Arabia and organizes an international coalition against the Iraqi invasion, ...
...elsewhere, including an endorsement by PLO head 'Arafat.
By the 1990s, with the split in the PLO's ranks healed, 'Arafat had reclaimed his leadership of Fatah, which remains the largest constituent member of the PLO.
Most fall harmlessly, none contain the poison gas warheads Hussein had threatened to use, and after the first days many are destroyed in flight by American Patriot antimissile missiles.
Accepting the U.S. air-defense, Israel holds its fire while the coalition devastates the Jewish state's most dangerous Arab opponent.
Hussein's purpose in launching the Scuds at neutral Israel is not achieved.
He had hoped to provoke an Israeli counterstrike and thereby detach the Syrians and Egyptians from the enemy coalition.
The Israelis are understandably furious at the unprovoked attacks against defenseless civilian targets but understand President Bush's appeals to them not to respond.
The Arab-Western coalition hangs together.
The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the subsequent involvement, at the request of Saudi Arabia, of Western countries—mainly the United States—in ridding Kuwait of Iraqi presence causes a deep rift in the Arab League.
Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Syria, Morocco, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Lebanon, Djibouti, and Somalia endorse the presence of foreign troops in Saudi Arabia, and all but the last three have some degree (however slight) of military involvement in the war.
The United States greatly fears that its focus on Iraqi aggression will be diverted by Arab grievances against Israel.
When the American-led coalition's attack is launched, Washington urges Israel not to respond to Iraqi provocations, even after ...
Iraq's invasion of Kuwait and the retaliatory Persian Gulf War has forced King Hussein to choose between two allies, the United States and Iraq.
The king leans heavily toward Saddam Hussein, who also receives a zealous and vocal groundswell of support from the Jordanian people.
In addition, trade with Iraq represents two-fifths of the kingdom's gross domestic product.
Kuwait's allies immediately cut off all aid to Jordan, impose an air and sea blockade, and condemn King Hussein's actions.
To make matters worse, between two hundred thousand and three hundred thousand refugees from Kuwait are expelled or flee (back) to Jordan.