Northeastern North America

(1864 to 1875 CE): Conclusion of the Civil War, Reconstruction, Canadian Confederation, and Continued Industrial Expansion

From 1864 to 1875, Northeastern North America experienced the conclusion of the American Civil War, complex Reconstruction efforts, the formation of the Canadian Confederation, significant industrial and economic growth, and ongoing cultural development. This period was characterized by intense political restructuring, expanding infrastructure, evolving relationships with indigenous peoples, and the continued flourishing of regional industries.

American Civil War and Reconstruction

Conclusion and Aftermath

The American Civil War concluded in 1865, marking a profound turning point for Northeastern North America. The Northeast played a crucial role, contributing industrial resources, manpower, and economic support that proved vital for Union victory. Indigenous participation was significant; about twenty thousand Native Americans fought on both sides, including prominent contributions by the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, Seminole, and Iroquois peoples. Notably, about forty-five Iowa tribesmen served in the Union Army, including Chief James White Cloud, grandson of Chief Mahaska. Irish and other immigrant communities also fought prominently, exemplifying the complex demographic dynamics of the war. The post-war Reconstruction era saw efforts to integrate formerly enslaved populations into society and rebuild a nation divided by war, facing resistance, social upheaval, and political struggle.

Formation of the Canadian Confederation

Constitutional Conferences and Confederation

Following several constitutional conferences, the Constitution Act officially proclaimed the Canadian Confederationon July 1, 1867, initially uniting four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. This marked a significant political realignment aimed at ensuring stability, economic prosperity, and defense against potential American expansionism.

Expansion and Indigenous Relations

In 1870, Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory, forming the Northwest Territories. Tensions surrounding land rights and governance ignited the Red River Rebellion, led by the Métis under Louis Riel, resulting in the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870. Further territorial expansion occurred as British Columbia, including Vancouver Island (united in 1866), joined the Confederation in 1871, and Prince Edward Island followed in 1873.

Industrial and Economic Growth

Bluestone and Infrastructure Development

The bluestone industry continued to thrive, playing a critical role in urban development. Cities like New York and Kingston relied on shipments from hubs like Rondout and Malden, utilizing barges and tugboats operated by entrepreneurs such as Thomas Cornell. Bluestone became a staple material for sidewalks, curbstones, and building foundations, defining the architectural character of urban environments.

Notable examples included Kingston’s sidewalks and curbstones and the Old Dutch Church in Kingston, designed by Minard Lefever, constructed of native-dressed bluestone blocks between 1850 and 1852. Similarly, in 1858, entrepreneur Henry Samson built an Italian villa using ashlar and rusticated bluestone blocks on West Chestnut Street in Kingston.

Ice Harvesting and Brick Manufacturing

Ice harvesting along the Hudson River remained essential for refrigeration and food preservation, supported by large warehouses and extensive straw insulation methods. Brick manufacturing near major waterways and transportation hubs further reinforced the economic vitality and industrial capability of the region.

Artistic and Cultural Continuity

Hudson River School Influence

The Hudson River School, though past its zenith, continued influencing American art and culture. Paintings from artists such as Frederick Edwin Church and Sanford Robinson Gifford persisted in capturing landscapes that symbolized America's natural beauty and national identity, reflecting ongoing themes of exploration, settlement, and harmony with nature.

Legacy of the Era (1864–1875 CE)

Between 1864 and 1875, Northeastern North America navigated the challenging aftermath of the Civil War, fostered the political and territorial growth of Canada, and sustained industrial and cultural advancement. The transformations of this era, from Reconstruction to Confederation and industrial prosperity, continued to shape the region’s historical trajectory, significantly influencing the subsequent decades.

Canada assumes control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignites the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.

British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) join the confederation in 1871, while Prince Edward Island joins in 1873.

Donald Smith, Smith had joined with George Stephen, Richard Bladworth Angus, and Andrew Paton to establish the textile manufactory, Paton Manufacturing Company, in Sherbrooke on September 25, 1868.

This same year he had been promoted to Commissioner of the Montreal department, managing the Hudson's Bay Company's eastern operations.

Born in Forres, in Moray, Scotland to Alexander Smith, a saddler, and Barbera Stuart, Smith had briefly apprenticed to become a lawyer in the town clerk's office after leaving school at the age of sixteen.

He had emigrated to Lower Canada in 1838 to work for the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), becoming a clerk for the organization in 1842.

He had been given administrative control over the seigneury of Mingan (in modern Labrador) in late 1843, where his innovative methods met with the disapproval of HBC governor Sir George Simpson.

The Mingan post burned down in 1846, and Smith had left for Montreal the following year.

Returning in 1848, he had remained in Labrador until the 1860s, administering the fur trade and salmon fishing within the region.

In 1862, Smith had been promoted as the company's Chief Factor in charge of the Labrador district.

He had traveled to London in 1865, and made a favorable impression on the HBC's directors.

The Red River Colony has been changing rapidly during the late 1860s.

Historically, the population had been composed mainly of Francophone (Michif-speaking) Métis, along with a minority of English-speaking mixed-race people known as the "country born" (also as Anglo-Métis), and a small number of Presbyterian Scottish settlers.

More Anglophone Protestants have begun to settle there from Ontario.

The new settlers are generally insensitive to Métis culture and hostile to Roman Catholicism, and many ware advocates of Canadian expansionism.

At the same time, many Americans have migrated there, some of whom favor annexation of the territory by the United States.

Against this backdrop of religious, nationalistic, and racial tensions, political uncertainty is high.

To forestall United States expansionism, the British and Canadian governments had been for some time negotiating the transfer of Rupert's Land from the Hudson's Bay Company to Canada.

The Rupert's Land Act 1868 had authorized the transfer.

The District of Assiniboia is a name used to describe the Red River Colony, mainly for official purposes, between 1812 and 1869.

Nominally the district includes all of the territory granted in the Selkirk Concession, however much of this had been ceded to the United States in 1818 and in 1838 the district had been redefined as the circular region within 50 miles of the junction of the Red and Assiniboine rivers.

The actual area of settlement, centered at present day Winnipeg, is limited to the Red River valley between Lower Fort Garry and Pembina, ND and the Assiniboine River valley between Winnipeg and Portage la Prairie, Manitoba.

The District is governed by a Hudson's Bay Company appointed Governor of Assiniboia who is advised by members of the Council of Assiniboia.

In 1869, the Canadian federal government arranges to buy the Hudson Bay Company’s territories for the sum of three hundred thousand pounds and title to one-twentieth of the land in the “fertile belt” (the region south of the Saskatchewan River.)

Rupert's Land, including the District of Assiniboia, is transferred to Canada without consultation of the residents of the settlement.

In anticipation of the transfer, the minister of public works, William McDougall, who along with George-Étienne Cartier had been instrumental in securing Rupert's Land for Canada, has ordered a survey party to the Red River Colony.

Catholic Bishop Taché, the Anglican bishop of Rupert's land Robert Machray, and the HBC governor of Assiniboia William Mactavish have all warned the government that such surveys will precipitate unrest.

Headed by Colonel John Stoughton Dennis, the survey party had arrived at Fort Garry on August 20, 1869.

The Métis are anxious about it, as many do not possess clear title to their lands.

In addition, the lots had been laid out according to the Seigneurial system, with long, narrow lots fronting the river, rather than the square lots preferred by the English.

They take the survey to be a forerunner of increased Canadian migration to the territory, which the Métis perceive as a threat to their way of life—more specifically, they fear losing their farms.

The larger fear is for losing their language and Catholic religion, and facing marginalization and discrimination in what has been their home territory.

The Canadian government had appointed the notoriously anti-French William McDougall as the Lieutenant Governor of the Northwest Territories-designate on September 28, 1869, in anticipation of a formal transfer to take effect on December 1.

This has increased tensions among the Métis.

Emerging as a leader, the educated Louis Riel had denounced the survey in a speech delivered in late August from the steps of Saint-Boniface Cathedral.

On October 11, 1869, Riel and other Métis had disrupted the survey's work.

On October 16, this group had organized as the "Métis National Committee" to represent Métis interests.

Riel had been elected secretary, John Bruce as president, and two representatives had been elected from each parish.

Because the Hudson's Bay Company's Council of Assiniboia still has authority over the area, its representatives summon Riel on October 25 to explain the actions of the Committee.

Riel declares that any attempt by McDougall to enter will be blocked unless the Canadians first negotiate terms with the Métis and with the general population of the settlement.

Métis under the command of Ambroise-Dydime Lépine turn back McDougall's party near the United States border on November 2 and force them to retreat to Pembina, North Dakota.

The number of Riel's followers has grown rapidly.

That same day, Riel leads about four hundred Métis in seizing Fort Garry without bloodshed.

Residents of the Red River Colony disagree over how to negotiate with Canada; in particular, the French- and English-speaking inhabitants do not have a consensus on how to proceed.

In a conciliatory gesture, Riel on November 6 asks the Anglophones to select delegates from each of their parishes to attend a convention with the Métis representatives.

After few accomplishments at the first meeting, some of the Anglophone delegates express displeasure at Riel's treatment of McDougall.

The Council of Assiniboia had made a final attempt to assert its authority on November 16, when Governor Mactavish issued a proclamation ordering the Métis to lay down their arms.

Instead, on November 23, Riel proposes the formation of a provisional government to enter into direct negotiations with Canada.

The Anglophone delegates request adjournment to discuss matters.

William McDougall proclaims on December 1 that the Hudson's Bay Company is no longer in control of Rupert's Land, and that he is the new lieutenant-governor.

This proclamation will later prove problematic, as it effectively ends the authority of the Council, while failing to establish Canadian authority—unbeknownst to McDougall, the transfer had been postponed once news of the unrest reached Ottawa.

While much of the settlement is moving toward the Métis point of view, a passionately pro-Canadian minority is becoming more resistant.

It is loosely organized as the Canadian Party and led by Dr. John Christian Schultz and Charles Mair; Colonel Dennis and Major Charles Boulton also support it.

McDougall has appointed Dennis to raise a militia to arrest the Métis' occupying Upper Fort Garry.

The anglophone settlers had largely ignored this call to arms, and Dennis had withdrawn to Lower Fort Garry.

Schultz, however, had been emboldened to fortify his house and store.

Riel takes the threat seriously and orders Schultz's home surrounded.

The resisters surrender on December 7 and are imprisoned in Fort Garry.